Tuesday, 12 April 2011

tudy of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast

http://www.wwfpak.org/sgp/pdf/toxics/1_study_%20of_%20heavy_metal_pollution.pdf ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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FINAL PROJECT REPORT
1. Project No. #: 50022801
2. Project Title: Study of Heavy Metal Pollution Level and Impact on the Fauna
and Flora Of the Karachi and Gwadar Coast.
3. Project Start Date: October 2001
4. Project End Date: September 2002
5. Report Prepared by: Monawwar Saleem
7. Introduction:
Karachi is located on the northern border of the Arabian Sea and its population is over
thirteen million. Karachi coastal area receives 472,000m3 domestic and industrial
wastewater primarily through Lyari and Malir River and from streams and drainages
(KDA master plan
1
, 1990-2000). This water reaches Karachi coastal area via Karachi
Harbour and Gizri creek. Industrial waste discharge originating form the industries located
at SITE (Sindh Industrial Trading Estate), LITE (Landhi Industrial Trading Estate), KIA
(Korangi Industrial Area) that also add their effluent to Karachi coastal area. The two
existing treatment plants located at Malir and Lyari Rivers treat approximately 20-25% of
the total waste. Karachi coastal area is badly affected by industrial and untreated sewage
of Karachi Harbour and Gizri and Korangi creek. According to Beg
2
(1975) Karachi
Harbour receives a variety of chemicals such as calcium carbonate (115.74 metric
tons/day) total dissolved solids (317 metric tons/day) iron oxide (5.14 metric tons/day).
Due to the tidal flushing of wastes in the Karachi Harbour and Gizri and Korangi creek
the highly toxic wastes make their way in to the coastal waters of Karachi resulting the
increasing levels of pollution. Preliminary survey of Karachi Harbour seawater reveals
that it contains high concentration of nutrients downstream of Lyari River Monawwar
3
(1995). The tides of the Karachi Harbour are semi diurnal type Quraishee
4
(1975). The ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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effluents received by the Karachi Harbour through Lyari River and the adjoining areas are
not completely flushed out in to the open sea during tidal cycle. Therefore poor circulation
condition creates production of hydrogen sulfide that produces a stress on the marine life.
Tidal flats of the Sandspit and Channa creek in the Karachi Harbour area have flourishing
vegetation of mangrove. The most part of the central area of Karachi Harbour and some
area of Korangi creek are devoid of any benthic life in the sediments. The bottom
sediments are black in colour with presence of hydrogen sulfide. The fauna and flora of
this area are severe stress from the industrial and domestic pollution (Ahmed
5
, 1979).
The city of Gwadar is located at the extreme northern border of the Arabian Sea, some
~450 km west of Karachi. The population of Gwadar is over 120,000. More than 50% of
the population is engaged in fishing activity. The fishermen’s boats occupy a very large
stretch of the East Bay where fish landing and boat building and repairs take place. About
400 boats (mostly small) are busy in fishing in the territorial waters. According to
Rabbani
6
(1989) the area is highly productive and red tide blooms have been observed in
the winter monsoon period. Gwadar city has no proper drainage system; the liquid waste
is dumped septic tank (underground). According to Memon
7
(1995), heavy minerals are
found in the range of 1-.15%. High concentrations of heavy metal in water and sediment
have also been observed in Karachi Harbour and in the sediment of Gwadar East Bay
(Monawwar
8
, 1999). Continued disposal of the industrial and domestic waste in to
Arabian Sea will cause fish kill and reduction in the valuable export of shrimps as well as
the reduction of marine life in the coastal waters. Some work has been done regarding the
heavy metal concentration in the fish and shellfish of the Karachi offshore, Korangi creek,
and Karachi Harbour (Ashraf
9
, 1988; Monawwar
10,
,1999)
8. Objectives:
- Estimate the level of heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Ni, Cu, and Hg) in the seawater at hot
spot sites of Karachi and Gwadar coast. ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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- Determine the heavy metal in the marine sediments and biota of Karachi and
Gwadar coastal area.
- To determine any heavy metal indicator species of Karachi and Gwadar coastal
areas.
- To establish the relationship of heavy metal pollution in marine biota with the
environment.
9.Project Achievements (Short and long term):
Result and discussion provide the following useful information: -
- From this project, the data information on heavy metal distribution patterns at
selected sites in the seawater, sediments, fauna and flora of Karachi and Gwadar
coastal areas has been recorded.
- The project provides a comprehensive baseline data for heavy metals that would
be useful for pollution monitoring of the study area in future.
- Data of bioaccumulation obtained from this study will help in determining possible
health risks by consumption of seafood from the area.
- The results of this study will also provide a baseline for the assessment of the
impact of disposal of industrial and municipal wastes in the entire area of the
environment.
10.Constraints & Obstacles encountered:
Time required for the sampling collection and analysis was constraints. This was
overcome by extending the report period.

11. Action taken to overcome constraints & Obstacles
The WWF-P Scientific Committee was requested to extend the time period, which
was granted to me. ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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12.Target/ Objective not achieved and why?
The target/ Objectives set out in the initial proposal have been achieved.
13. Described the methods developed for the project:
The following protocols were adopted for the collection of samples and data
analysis.
13.1 Collection of surface sediment
Seabed sediment samples were collected using Peterson Grab at eight
stations in Gwadar East Bay, four stations at Karachi Harbour, three station
in Korangi creek area and one each in Gizri Creek, Buleji, Manora (open
sea side), (Fig.1-3). A part of the sample from middle of the grab was
retained for analysis. Soon after the collection of samples, the sediment
samples were kept in polyethylene wide neck bottles (Pre-washed with
10% HC1 acid) and stored in iceboxes and refrigerator until analysis. The
sediment samples were collected from Karachi coast in January 2002 to
July 2002. The sampling from Gwadar was done in the middle of July
2002.
13.2 Collection of seawater Samples
Seawater samples for dissolved heavy metals were collected using Niskin ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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bottles / plastic Bucket (pre-washed with distilled water). These seawater
samples were collected at above station along with the stations.
Immediately after the collection of seawater it was filtered through micro
glass fiber filter (0.8 µ) paper followed by membrane filter (0.45 µ) under
300 mm Hg pressure acidified with hydrochloric acid to pH-2 and kept in
cool place in polyethylene (Nelgin) bottles until analysis. All equipments
and filter were of non-metallic materials, carefully acid washed with 10 %
hydrochloric acid and rinsed with double distilled water.
13.3 Collection of fish and mussel samples
The fish and shellfish were collected by a trawl net at high tide from the
Manora Channel (Karachi Harbour) and in Korangi creek (Fig.1-3). These
samples were taken between January and July 2002. Fifteen fishes (Pelagic
and benthic) were also collected from Gwadar East Bay during the mid of
July 2002. Soon after the collection, the samples were rinsed with distilled
water. These samples were identified to the species level and stored in deep
freezers until analysis.
Mussels (Perna viridis) were collected random by hand picking from each
site of Manora channel (Karachi Harbour), Korangi creek and Gwadar East
Bay (Near fish harbour) during low tide in January & July 2002. (Fig.1-3).
In the laboratory, the samples were cleansed to remove the mud or any
attachment and then washed with double distilled water. Tissues (edible
portion) from the shells were removed with a plastic knife and kept in precleaned Petri dish. Finally the edible portion samples were dried in the
oven at 65°C. ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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13.4 Collection of seaweeds and mangrove plant leaves
Seaweeds were collected by hand picking from two different sites of
Karachi coast, Manora Island (Sea-side) and Buleji during low tide in
January 2002; Mangrove leaves were collected at four different sites
(Sandpit back water, Karachi Harbour, Kemari back water, Korangi Fish
Harbour and Rehri Goth) of the Karachi coast in January 2002. These
samples were cleaned and rinsed with double distilled water, and finally
dried at room temperature.
13.5 Digestion and analysis of sediment samples
One to four gram of dried sediment sample were added to 3 ml
concentrated nitric acid and 9 ml of hydrochloric acid (Aqua regia) in prewashed beaker and digested at room temperature. The sediment samples
were then evaporated almost to dryness at moderate temperature 65-70 C°
on the hot plate under the clean air-fuming hood. Finally, the samples were
diluted up to 25 ml with 2% nitric acid (FAO, 1975)
11
,Heavy metals (Cu .
Cr, Ni, & Zn, in the sediment samples were analyzed on Flame Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer (FAAS) using PERKIN-ELMER Model
3300, Cadmium samples were analyzed on Graphite Furnace Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer (HGA-600 Perkin-Elmer).
13.6 Extraction of heavy metals and analysis from the seawater samples
300ml to 1000ml samples of seawater was transferred to a pre-washed ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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separating funnel and 1.0 ml of citrate buffer was added. The pH of the
samples was adjusted to 4.0 with concentrated hydrochloric acid or purified
ammonia. After adjusting the pH, 2 ml of 1.0 % chelating reagent APDC
(Ammonium Pyrolline Dithocarbamate) solution was added followed by 20
ml MIBK (Metyl Isobutyl Ketone) The mixture was kept for 2 to 3 minutes
and they were allowed 15-16 minutes for the separation of phase,
subsequent the lower organic layer was drained in 100 ml separating
funnel. The procedure was repeated by adding an additional aliquot of 10
ml MIBK to the funnel shaken after 2 to 3 minutes the two extracts were
combined and 0.5 ml of nitric acid was added by micropipette mixed for
one minute and left for 15 minutes. Subsequently 9.5 ml of double distilled
water was added for back extraction (Kremling
12
, 1983). After phase
separation, the aqueous phase was collected in pre-cleaned Nelgin
polyethylene bottle for analysis.
Measurement of heavy metal in seawater was made with Flame AAS /
Graphite furnace. Standard operating conditions of the instrument were set
during the analysis for Cadmium, nickel, copper and chromium in
seawater.
13.7 Digestion and analysis of heavy metal in fish, shellfish, seaweeds, and
mangrove leaves
Approximately 1 to 3 gram dry weight of marine organisms (For Fishes
edible portion and whole soft tissue of Mussels), seaweed and mangrove
plant leaves were mixed separately and to each digestion vessel were added
3 ml of Nitric acid, 9 ml of Hydrochloric acid (Aqua regia) and 5 to 15 ml
of Hydrogen peroxide according to the FAO
11
(1975) Manual and were
digested at 70-100°C to dryness. After removal from hot plate, the samples
were cooled at room temperature, and then added with 25 ml of 2% of ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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nitric acid and kept for two hours. The samples were then filtered by
Whatman No.42 filter paper.
For calibration purpose known concentration of each element was added to
digest the samples and recoveries were >92% for the known amount of
each element. All samples and blanks were analyzed using double beam
Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Perkin-Elmer model 3300). Zinc, copper
and chromium were analyzed on flame, while cadmium and nickel on
Graphite Furnace (Model HGA-600)
14. Lessons learnt from the project:
The presence of heavy metal pollution in the coastal waters of Karachi is
significant as shown in the results and discussion. The heavy metal concentration
at Gwadar was however lower. But we must not be complacent. Awareness and
the efforts for the containment of heavy metal must continue to be monitored at
regular intervals and brought to the notice of the concerned authorities.
14. Result and discussion
14.1 Concentrations and distribution of heavy metals in sea water
The observation of heavy metal concentration levels recorded at four different sites
of Karachi coastal area (Karachi harbour, Buleji, Korangi and Gizri creek) and
Gwadar East Bay and off-Gwadar East Bay five heavy metals (zinc, copper;
cadmium, chromium and nickel) were studied their levels are given in fig.4-fig 6).
Generally the concentrations of these metals were found highest in following
order; Karachi Harbour> Korangi creek > Gizri creek> Buleji in Karachi coast and
in Gwadar East Bay. The high concentration of the heavy metals in seawater in the
Karachi Harbour, Korangi and Gizri creek indicates that the area continuously ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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receives industrial and domestic waste of Karachi city, while Buleji is relatively
less polluted.
14.1.1 Nickel
The concentration of nickel in the Karachi Coast ranges from 0.27 to 0.72 µg/l
(Fig.4). Highest concentration of nickel was found in the Karachi Harbour (Mean
0.72µg/l) and lowest in Buleji and Gwadar East Bay 0.27 and 0.42µg/l
respectively. High concentration of nickel in Karachi Harbour is due to the waste
originating from the electroplating industries at S.I.T.E. Similar trend of nickel
distribution was observed by L.Brugman
13
(1998) in northern part of the Baltic
near Skagerrak area. Seng
14
(1987) also noticed high concentration of nickel (1.6-
1.8 µg/l) in the Juru Estuary due to the industrial activity along the coast (Table-I).
At least 40 times lower concentration of nickel was found in our coastal area in
comparison with the recommended marine water quality standard for UK for the
protection of marine life (Mance, 1984)
15
.
14.1.2 Copper
The concentration levels of copper in the water samples of Karachi Harbour are
found to be highest. Mean value obtained was 2.13µg/l, and low values were found
at Buleji and Gwadar East Bay 0.85 0.98µg/l respectively (Fig.4). High
concentration in Karachi Harbour can be attributed to the release of copper from
the industries and other coastal installations. Comparatively higher concentration
of copper in the seawater are reported by Patel
16
(1985) in Bombay harbour,
Mart
17
(1985) in Elbe Estuary, Harper
18
(1991) in Severn Estuary, Sengupta
19
(1978) in Goa and Zingde
20
(1987) in Perna River Estuary .On the other hand
lower copper concentrations were recorded by Seng
14
(1987) in Juru Estuary,
Fowler in Oman coastal water and Valanta
21
(1983) in Wester Shedlt Estuary ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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(Table-1).
During the present study, a decrease in the concentration of copper was noted from
Karachi Harbour towards the open sea. Kremling and Peterson
22
(1984) made
similar observation in the Bothnian Bay.
14.1.3 Zinc
The concentration level of zinc at the Karachi Coast ranges from 3-24.3µg/l, while
in the Gwadar East Bay the concentration ranges between 12-13µg/l (fig.5). The
results obtained for zinc in Karachi Harbour are similar to the observations made
by Bryan
23
(1976) in Corpus Crusty Harbour in Texas, during the summer when
the harbour water stagnates and concentration of zinc was 480µg/l. Wong
24
(1980)
also observed high concentration of zinc i.e.38 to 94µg/l in the Tolo Harbour,
Hong Kong (Table-1). Accumulation of zinc in seawater in present study shows
discharge from the Karachi Harbour and Korangi Creek.
14.1.4 Cadmium
Highest mean concentration level of cadmium has been recorded in Karachi
Harbour to be 0.485µg/l about half of its concentration is reported in the Korangi
creek, while lowest was recorded in Buleji (0.063µg/l) table-5. According to a
published report Industrial and domestic waste is considered to be the main source
of cadmium in the marine environment. The concentration of cadmium in our
study is comparable to that in the Severn Estuary where cadmium ranged between
0.11-0.4 µg/l as reported by Harper
18
(1991), Wong
24
(1980) and Ouseph
25
(1992)
in Tolo Harbour and Cochin Estuary where higher concentrations (Table-1).
Lower concentration of cadmium was found in Gwadar and Bulleji seawater ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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respectively. This concentration is 40 times lower according to USA-EPA
26
(1998)
or marine water quality criteria for chronic and acute level (Table-1).

14.1.5 Chromium
The highest mean chromium concentration in seawater was found in the Karachi
Harbour and Gizri creek where the concentration ranges from 2.61 and 2.13µg/l
(Fig.6). High concentration of chromium is mainly due to untreated tannery waste
which is being dumped in the Karachi Harbour and Gizri creek via Lyari and Malir
River respectively.
14.2 Concentration and distribution of heavy metals in sediments
The results of heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Cd, Ni and Cr) in sediments that were
collected from Buleji, Karachi Harbour, Korangi and Gizri and Creek Gwadar fish
Harbour and off-Gwadar fish Harbour (Gwadar East Bay) are shown in Fig.7-9.
Concentration of all five heavy metals in surface sediments decrease in the
following order Karachi Harbour > Korangi creek > Gizri creek > Buleji in
Karachi Coastal > Gwadar East Bay >off-Gwadar East Bay.
14.2.1 Nickel
Nickel concentration was observed to be highest at Karachi Harbour where as its
concentration was 46 ppm, and lowest at Buleji (5 ppm). About half the
concentration (22 ppm) of nickel of Karachi Harbour was recorded in Gwadar East
Bay sediment, the source of which may be natural of rocks (Fig.7).
This data is comparable to other parts of the world (Table-2).such as. Bombay
Harbour (Patel
16
,1985) Kaohsiung Harbour (Chen
27
,1977) reported higher ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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concentration of nickel in sediment compared to the Karachi coastal and Gwadar
coastal areas. In contrast, lower concentrations were recorded by Soulsby
28
(1978),
Salamanca
29
(1978), and Seng
14
(1978).
14.2.2. Zinc
The highest mean concentration of zinc in sediment was found in the surface
sediments of the Karachi Harbour i.e. (192.7 ppm) while about 22 times lower
concentration was found in Buleji Coast (Fig.7). In the previous studies
(Monawwar
3
1995), in Karachi Harbour, concentrations were found to be almost
half of recent studies. Monawwar
8
,(1999) reported mean concentration levels of
zinc in sediment as 35.2 ppm in Gwadar East Bay.
Comparatively the relative concentration of zinc in the Karachi Harbour was
found to be higher than Bombay Harbour, Portsmouth Harbour, Conception Bay,
Juru Estuary and Upper Gulf of Thailand (Table-2).
14.2.3 Copper
The highest concentration of copper in sediment was observed in the Karachi
Harbour (89 ppm) while the lowest was recorded in Buleji (1.6 ppm) The
concentration was (7.8 ppm) off Gwadar East Bay (Fig.8). Untreated waste of
SITE, KITE and LITE area can be attributed to high concentration in the sediment
of Karachi Harbour, Korangi and Gizri creek respectively.
Copper concentration in the sediments Karachi Harbour was found to be lower
than that found in Bombay Harbour, Higher concentrations were reported in
Portsmouth Harbour (Soulsby
28
1978), Juru Estuary (Seng
14
1987), Singapore
Estuary (Sin
30
1991), Koasiung Harbour (Chen
27
1977), Conception Bay ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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Salimanica
29
(1988) Menasveta
31
  (1981) in Gulf of Thailand (Table-2).
14.2.4 Cadmium
Highest concentration of cadmium in surface sediment was found at Karachi
Harbour and Korangi creek 1.12 and 0.99 ppm respectively whereas lower values
were recorded at Buleji and Gwadar East Bay 0.31 and 0.42 ppm respectively
(Fig.8). Previous record (Monawwar
3
1995) shows that concentration of cadmium
in Karachi Harbour has increased up to three times in the past 8 years The
concentration of cadmium in the surfacial sediments is although lower than the
other geographical areas as reported by Portsmouth Harbour (Soulsby), Juru
Estuary (Seng), Singapore Estuary (Sin), Conception Bay (Salamanca) and
(Menasveta) in Gulf of Thailand except Koasiung Harbour (Chen). (Table-2)
14.2.5 Chromium
The concentration and distribution of chromium in sediments was observed to be
similar pattern as Cu, Ni and Zn for this study. The mean concentration of
chromium was 94.25, 27.67, 20 and 14.3 ppm recorded from the Karachi Harbour
Korangi creek, Gizri Creek and Gwadar East Bay respectively (Fig.9). High
concentration of Chromium can be attributed probably to large amounts of
chromium being utilised (waste of tannery industries) in the Lyari River, thst
ultimately enters in the Karachi coastal area via Karachi Harbour. Similar
observations were noted by Papakostidis
32
1974, who reported high chromium
concentration near sewage outfall in Saronikos Gulf, Greece. The results of
chromium concentration in surface sediment were comparable with the Bombay
Harbour and Koasiung Harbour (Table-2).
14.3 Heavy metals in marine organisms ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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Heavy metals observed in the bodies of the marine organisms were mainly as a
resultant of the processes of uptake and losses due to metabolic control, although the
body metal concentration is also affected by changes in body weight due to growth,
and reproduction, storage or depletion of energy reserves, etc. Bryan
33
(1980)
Enrichment of heavy metals in the marine organisms depends on available food that
is probably the major pathway of the uptake of the heavy metal and accumulation in
the tissue of marine organisms. Marine organisms also have the capability to
detoxify the excess of heavy metals through the formation of metal binding protein
(Metallothioneins).
14.3.1 Heavy metals concentration in mussel (Perna viridis)
Mussels are widely distributed in the aquatic world. Mussels are rich in protein and
are nutritious food. Due to its nutritious value, it becomes important commercial
fisheries product of the coasts, estuaries and bays. According to Farrington
34
(1987)
mussels have the capability to accumulate the excess of heavy metals from seawater
up to 100,000 times higher than the seawater.
Perna viridis are generally known as green mussels and are usually, found in
Arabian sea and adjacent seas. Perna viridis are marine bivalve with their green
shells and are found in coastal waters attached to rocks and other substrate. Various
species of mussels have been widely used in pollution monitoring programs such as
mussels watch program. Perna viridis has been used as heavy metal pollution
indicator species by Phillips in Hongkong, Hungspreugs
35
(1984) in Gulf of
Thailand, Chidambram
36-37
(1992) in Indian coast.
Since mussels are the best accumulator of the heavy metals, therefore green mussels
Perna viridis have been used for the assessment of the heavy metal pollution at ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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Karachi and Gwadar coast. The results of heavy metal concentration distribution in
mussels (Perna viridis) have been shown in the fig.10-11.
14.3.2 Copper
Concentration of copper in the mussel tissues were found in the following order
Karachi Harbour > Korangi Creek > Gwadar East Bay 10.32, 7.3, 6.44 (ppm dry
weight) respectively (Fig.10). The copper accumulation in the mussel tissues from
the current study were compared with report from different geographical areas
(Table-3). It is found that the results were comparable to the mussels found in the
Thailand and Oman areas however higher concentration of copper were reported
from England, Wales and Scotland mussels.
16.3.3 Cadmium
Concentration of cadmium in mussel was found highest in following order Karachi
Harbour>Korangi Creek>Gwadar East Bay 0.45, 0.34 & 0.21 ppm dry weight
respectively (Fig.10). High concentration of cadmium in mussels of Karachi Harbour
is due to the untreated waste from the industries and sewage that enhances the
accumulation of cadmium in the mussel tissues. Similarly Phillips
38
(1992) observed
high concentration of cadmium in the mussels (Perna viridis) in the industrially
contaminated Port Phillips Bay (18 ppm dry weight).
Comparison of heavy metal contents in the mussels tissue from different regions of
the world have been presented in table-3.
14.3.4 Chromium
Highest concentration of chromium in the mussels (Perna viridis) was found in ________________________________________________________________________
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Karachi Harbour 3.77 ppm dry weight, while lowest concentration was recorded in
1.12 ppm dry weight in the Gwadar East Bay (Fig.10). Gault
39
(1983) found high
concentration of chromium in the mussels of Northern Ireland near the sewage
outfall and effluents of local tannery waste discharge point. High concentration in
mussels are also reported by Satmadjis
40
(1983) in Sorinikos Gulf (Table-3).
14.3.5 Zinc
Zinc is one of the essential metals for the marine organisms, and it increases the
enzymatic activity (Vallee
41
1978). The concentration of zinc was found between
36-64 ppm dry weight in the study area. Highest concentration as expected was
found in the Karachi harbour (Fig.11). Similar observations were recorded by
Anderlin
42
(1991) near the sewage outfall at the entrance of Wellington Harbor,
New Zealand.

The comparison of zinc contents in the Mussels in different coastal areas is shown
in table-3. Higher contents of zinc were reported in Scotland (Devies
43
1981),
Salalah (Fowler
44
1983), and Saronikos (Satsmadjis
41
1983) and England & Wales
(Murray
45
1982) than the studied area except in Gulf of Thailand (Manuwadi
46
1984) and Pitani Bay of Thailand (Evraartsts
47
1987).
14.3.6 Nickel
Concentration of nickel in the mussel of Karachi harbour was found to be double of
that found in the Korangi Creek and Gwadar East Bay (Fig.11). Fowler
44
(1983)
observed similar concentration of nickel in the mussels of Omani waters, while
higher concentration were reported by Satmadjis
40
(1983) in Sorinikos Gulf (Table-
3).
14.4 Heavy metals concentration in fishes ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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The result of five heavy metals reported in fishes of Karachi harbour Korangi
creek and Gwadar East Bay are shown in Fig.12-20. The species used during this
study were juvenile of twelve species of fish from Karachi Harbour, eleven species
of Korangi creek and fifteen species of Gwadar East Bay.

14.4.1 Zinc
The highest mean concentration of zinc in fishes were recorded in Acanthopagrust,
Gerres filamentosus, Terapon jerbua of Karachi harbour, Korangi creek and
Gwadar East Bay fishes respectively (Fig.13, 16 &19).
High concentration of zinc has been documented in the sediments as well as water
that reflected condition of fishes of Karachi harbour and Korangi creek. Similar
observations were made by Stenner and Nickless
48(
1974) in the marine biota of
Hardenger Fjord Norway due to high concentration background in the water and
sediments. The comparison of heavy metal contents in fishes in different coastal
areas is shown in Table-4 .The concentration of zinc recorded by Eustace
49
(1974),
Huseyin
50
(1982) Singball
51
1982) in the fishes of Derwent Estuary, Izmir Bay and
Aguda Bay respectively were found lower than that in the Karachi Harbour.
14.4.2 Cadmium
   ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
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Cadmium is the most toxic element after mercury for marine life as well as for
human life. It is accumulated in the body of the marine organisms due to its poor
regulatory ability, as recorded by Pentrath
52
(1976), Olafson
53
(1977).
The mean concentration of cadmium in the fishes was found to be 0.06, 0.04, 0.06
ppm fresh weight in the fishes of Karachi harbour, Korangi creek and Gwadar East
Bay respectively. The highest concentration of cadmium was recorded both in
Sillago shiama of Karachi harbour and Gwadar East Bay and Carangoides
oblongus obtain from Korangi creek fish. Cadmium contents in the present study
were found to be lower compared with the maximum permissible daily intake
(Table-5). The concentration of cadmium in the fishes is also compared with the
published results. High values were observed by Huseyin
50
(1982) Singball
51
(1982) and Kureishy
54
(1993) in Izmir Bay, Aguda Bay and Qatari coast
respectively. Stenner and Nickless
55
(1992) found high concentration of cadmium
in the body muscles of Solea solea and Raja clavata (2.1, 2.45 ppm fresh weight)
respectively in the coastal areas of Spain and southern Portugal due to the river
inflow near the industrialized inland region. Wright
56
(1976) also found high
concentration of cadmium ranging between 3.4-5.4 ppm fresh weight in the fish
Patichthyes flestus in the Severn Estuary while Hardisty
57
(1974) found cadmium
that ranged between (1.1-1.7 ppm fresh weight) in the same species in the
Barnstable Bay.
14.4.3 Nickel
The highest concentration of nickel was found in both Sillago shiama of Karachi
harbour and Gwadar East Bay, and in Pomadasys argyreus of Korangi creek fish.
High concentration of nickel was due to their feeding habits and both species feed
on invertebrate, crustaceans and small fishes. Most of invertebrate such as ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
19
crustaceans are less mobile than the fishes. They can therefore accumulate higher
concentration of heavy metal from the Karachi coastal environment.
14.4.4 Copper
Copper is an essential metal required by the marine organisms for their enzymatic
activity to meet metabolic needs. Marine organisms have the capability to regulate
copper concentration according to their body requirement. Maximum
concentration of copper was found in both Sillago shiama of Karachi harbour and
Gwadar East Bay and Carangoides oblongus of Korangi Creek.
The concentration of copper reported in fish from different world coastal areas are
given in Table-4. This comparison shows that the average concentration of copper
in fish from Oman coast, Qatari coast, Derwent Estuary, Aguda Bay and Izmir Bay
were higher than the values found in the present study. The average daily intake of
heavy metals is given in Table-5.
14.4.5 Chromium
The concentration of chromium in fish found in the fish of Karachi Harbour was
0.42 ppm fresh weight, whereas maximum concentrations were recorded both in
Sillago shiama of Karachi harbour and Gwadar East Bay. These fishes have
chromium under the limit of normal daily intake as recommended in United
Kingdom in the foodstuff (Mance
15
1984)
Concentration of heavy metal contents in our coastal fishes have been compared
with the maximum permissible daily intake limit (Mc-Graw Hill Encyclopedia
58
(1982), Burch
59
1975 and GESAMP
60
, 1985). These Concentrations of heavy
metals are generally found within safe limit for human consumption Table-5. ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
20
14.5 Heavy metals concentration in mangrove leaves
Mangrove forest plays an important role in the productivity of the coastal estuarine
environment. They serve as a breeding ground and provide shelter for the fish and
shellfish of the coastal area. Rapid increase in population and industrial activities
effect the ecology of mangrove ecosystem of the creek area, particularly in the
vicinity of the Karachi coast. A numbers of studies have been reported with regards
to the metal contamination of mangrove Leela
61
(1979), George
62
(1997),
Chakarabarti
63
(1993), and Chiu
64
(1991). There is no published information
available about the metal contamination of mangroves in our coastal area.

This present study provides information on the heavy metal levels in the mangrove
leaves of Karachi coast. The results of the five metals in the mangrove leaves of four
different sites are given in figures 21-22. There is no variation in the concentration
of copper & zinc contents in the mangrove leaves of Karachi coast. Highest
concentration of heavy metals was recorded in the Kemari mangrove leaves, an
mean concentration of zinc and copper observed was 5.25 and 23.34 ppm dry weight
respectively.
According to Elderfield
65
(1979) heavy metals precipitated with iron forms
polysulfide mineral particularly with copper and zinc. Similar formation can be
observed in the Karachi Sandspit backwater mangrove which receives considerable
amount of untreated domestic wastes containing high concentration of heavy metals.
Concentration of copper and zinc concentration in Karachi mangrove leaves was
found to be lower than reported by Chakarabarti in Sundarbun, George in Kerala
India, Leela in Ganapatipule India (Table-6).
Highest concentration of cadmium was recorded in the Karachi Harbour (Sandspit
back water) 0.305 ppm dry weight and Korangi Creek area (Rehri Goth) ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
21
concentration was 0.249 ppm dry weight. Concentration of cadmium was three times
lower than the Sunderbun mangrove leaves. Low concentration in mangrove leaves
suggested that cadmium is mostly unavailable for the uptake by plants and that
uptake is inhibited by the presence of large amount of other metal ions especially
zinc presence in the sediment (Thornton
66
, 1981).

Concentration of Chromium and nickel was found highest in Sandspit backwater of
Karachi Harbour and its concentration was recorded 6.15, 2.91and 3.04, 3.83 ppm
dry weight respectively. High concentration of chromium reflected water and
sediment concentration in Karachi Harbour.
14.6. Heavy metals concentration in seaweeds
Seaweeds and algae are best indicators of metal in the coastal waters due to their
ability to reflect the concentration of metals present in the environment, (Sanchiz
67
,1999, Eide
68
1983, Phillips
69
1977 and Munda
70
1991). Only one study on heavy
metals in Sindh coast has been reported in seaweeds by Jaleel
71
(1983) .
In the present investigation five metals were determined in the eleven species at
two different sites of Manora (Open sea side) and Buleji. The results of heavy
metal contents in the seaweeds are shown in fig.23-27.
Highest concentration of copper was found in the Calpomonia sp. At both the sites
of Manora and Buleji, concentrations were 8.66 and 7.11 ppm dry weight
respectively. Higher concentration was also observed by Munda and Shiber
72
(1980) in the same species in the Adriadic sea (22 ppm dry weight) and Ras
Beirut, Lebanon (11-41 ppm dry weight).
The small variation was observed for Chromium in all seaweeds (except
Calpamonia sp. and Botrocladia laptopodia) with the minimum and maximum ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
22
values ranging from 2 to 3 times. Comparable concentration was observed by
Shiber in the Ras Beirut Lebanon (2-11 ppm dry weight).
Highest mean concentration of cadmium was found in Coelarthrum muelleri,
Padina povina and Calpamonia sp. from the seaweeds samples collected from of
Manora and its concentrations were 3.41, 3.11 and 3.06 ppm dry weight
respectively.
Zinc is essential element for the cell metabolism of seaweeds. In the present study
highest concentration were observed in the Calpamonia sp. and Ulva lactuca (41,
38 ppm dry weight) respectively. Concentration of zinc was almost three times
higher in Manora seaweed than in the seaweeds of Buleji (38 and 14 ppm dry
weight). The results indicate that Ulva lactuca has a higher capacity for zinc
accumulation from the surrounding environment. Similar observation was
observed by Y.B.Ho
73
(1990) in the Hong Kong rural and urban sites where the
concentration was 27 and 66 ppm dry weight respectively.
Chromium was found in similar distribution pattern in both Calpamonia sp. and
Botrocladia laptopodia observed and their concentration were 13.3, 9.92 ppm dry
weight (fig.27). Shiber reported higher values in Calpamonia sp. of Ras Beirut
Labanon (28.7 ppm dry weight)
Comparing the results of metal accumulation with those from the other areas as
discussed above, the seaweeds of Manora were found to have accumulated metal,
partially due to untreated industrial and domestic waste entering in marine coastal
environment through the Lyari River from the city.
15.Conclusion & Recommendations: ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
23
Conclusions
- Highest Concentration of metals in water and sediments was observed in Karachi
Harbour area followed by; Korangi creeks> Gizri creeks> Gwadar fish Harbour>
Off Gwadar East Bay>Buleji.
- Heavy metals accumulation was observed to be twice in concentration two times
more of Heavy metals in green mussels of Karachi Harbour as compared to that of
Gwadar East Bay.
- Within Karachi Harbour, highest accumulation was observed for Zn, Cd, and Cu in
shellfish (Sepia sp.) and Ni & Cr in fish (Sillago sihama).
- In Gwadar East Bay highest accumulation was recorded in Sillago sihama for Ni,
Cu, Zn, Cd and Cr, while in Korangi creek Carangoides oblongus higher
accumulation was observed for Cd and Cu.
-
- At present the heavy metal concentrations studding undertaken in the respective
fishes etc. were within the safe limits.
- For Mangrove higher accumulation of Cd, Cr and Ni was observed in mangrove
leaves of Sandpit back water (Karachi Harbour), while highest concentration of Cu
& Zn was recorded in Kemari backwater and Rehri Goth (Korangi Creek).
- Amongst seaweeds higher accumulation of Cd was found in Red seaweed
(Botrocladia laptopodia). Highest accumulation of Zn, Cu, and Ni & Cr was
recorded in Brown seaweed (Colpamonia Sp.) Cu & Zn were found in Green
seaweed (Ulva faciata). ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
24
- Generally the concentration of heavy metals found in fish and shellfish are found
to be lower when compared with the results published for tropical region.
Recommendations
1. Continued monitoring of heavy metals of Karachi Harbour and Korangi creek
should be undertaken commercial important fish and shellfish.
2. National environmental quality standards for water quality and toxic metal content
in fish and shellfish should be formulated and implementation.
3. A programme should be prepared for the monitoring of organic and inorganic
pollutant along the coast of Pakistan.
4. Upgrade the existing sewage treatment capacity of treatment plant at Karachi and
other coastal areas to treat the sewage and industrial wastes water.
16.Output: List of reports, media articles slides, photographs etc.

The results will be published in scientific journal and author of this report will
write popular science article.
17. Equipments status report:
The instruments that were used in the present study were the property of the
National Institute of Oceanography. However, the funds provided by WWFProject were utilized for collection of samples and the purchase of the consumable
for Atomic Absorption spectrometer. ________________________________________________________________________
Study of Heavy metals pollution Karachi and Gwadar coast National Institute of Oceanography
25

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186.

Sustainable Development in the Coastal City of Karachi

http://casestudies.lead.org/index.php?csp=11

Sustainable Development in the Coastal City of Karachi: The Links between Conservation and Industry in Pakistan

Introduction

Community development is the tool by which "people empower themselves by increasing their ability to control their own lives in order to create a more fulfilling existence through mutual efforts to resolve shared problems" (Maser, 1997). In the early years of international development assistance, development initiatives were largely driven by a "top-to-bottom" approach. Projects were organised and executed by government's line departments, which often produced inappropriate solutions. For the past 20 years there has been a steady increase in new community development activities largely by non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the voluntary and donor sectors. As a result, community development initiatives have been transformed to what is now known as the "bottom-up" approach. This approach is based on the principle that people living in a community are the best source of information and the best resource to manage their needs.
Community development occurs when donor agencies, NGOs or strong-minded individuals and groups introduce new initiatives for change. While communities may develop in different ways, community development is often identified with increasing the skills, knowledge and abilities of local residents. It also increases the ability of the community as a whole so that the acquired skills may be used to create strategies that take advantage of changing circumstances. Community development involves economic systems, local institutions, political leadership, social and cultural structures, and community spirit and participation (Hines, 1998).
How have communities evolved through development initiatives? How are they managing local resources, successfully or unsuccessfully? It is possible to look at these differences in examples of community development.
The coastal city of Karachi has experienced a variety of such community development initiatives. Some initiatives emerged as a spontaneous response by communities working on a self-help basis; others were driven by donors. There is a marked difference in the organisation and functioning of these two types of initiatives. Karachi's interesting mix of community initiatives is positive for local communities, and motivates their participation. This diversity is illustrated by a variety of approaches to sustainable community development, which together comprise this Case Study. The selected initiatives include the following:

Urban model for community development: Orangi Pilot Project:
Mangrove conservation: IUCN's Korangi Ecosystem Project
Industry
1. Freshwater conservation: Haleji Lake
2. Power generation: Hub Power Company
3. Leather industry: Pakistan Tanneries Association

^*This case was completed under the guidance of Abid A. Burki who prepared the template for this case, read several drafts, offered comments and made numerous improvements throughout the writing process of this case. We have also benefited enormously from many useful comments made by Gillian Martin Mehers, Ali Tauqeer Sheikh, Naseer Ahmad Memon, Mazhar Iqbal Shaikh and M. Rafi Ghaus on an earlier draft. Our thanks also go to several colleagues at LEAD-Pakistan for their continued support and assistance in more ways than we can count. We also wish to express our gratitude to Shabbir Ahmad Qasuri for his research assistance. Finally, we wish to thank all the people from the projects who took the time to meet with us and provided us with essential information to write the case study.

Background

Karachi is the capital of the province of Sindh. The largest city in Pakistan, its diverse population is over 9 million. It is situated on the eastern coast of the Arabian Sea, surrounded by beaches such as Clifton Beach, French Beach, Hawks Bay, Sand Spit and Paradise Point.

This ultra-modern city has many bazaars, hi-tech electronic shops, old buildings and modern hotels. An influx of people from all parts of Pakistan has led to an enormous rise in the population and the emergence of several residential colonies to accommodate the new residents.
Karachi's recorded history goes back many centuries, to a time when it was a small fishing village known as Kolachi. With the rapid development of its seaport and harbour, Karachi progressively grew into a mega-city and an important centre for international trade, business and industry. The city has played a vital and dominant role in Pakistan's economy. Karachi became the capital of Pakistan after Independence in 1947, adding to its importance. Although the seat of Government has now been shifted to Islamabad, Karachi still remains the epicentre of commerce and industry.
Karachi was also the gateway to the Indus Valley civilisation, which flourished around 2,500 B.C. In fact, the ports used today were used at that time for trading activities with other civilisations. The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilisations of China, Egypt, India and Mesopotamia. Most of the Indus Valley ruins, including major cities, remain to be excavated.
In rural and urban areas of Pakistan, residents suffer from a growing list of problems including lack of employment opportunities, erosion of public infrastructure, and inadequate educational facilities. One of the most challenging problems is the increasing lack of involvement from governmental authorities. In response, communities have become increasingly active in arenas that once were considered outside their concern. This case study will establish a framework for understanding the emergence of complex community development. Examples from local initiatives will be used to illustrate the challenges related to community development.

Urban model for community development: Orangi Pilot Project

In recent years, Karachi has experienced an influx of migrants from all parts of Pakistan in search of a source of livelihood and better opportunities. Many of the migrants to large cities settle in katchi abadis (slums) where municipal infrastructure such as roads, water supplies and drainage is either under enormous strain or non-existent.

Karachi has about 650 katchi abadis, which are home to 40 percent of the city's population (Human Rights Education Programme, 1998). While there are many types of community development models being used elsewhere in the world, the models followed in Pakistan fall into two categories: those designed for urban slums and those for rural areas.
The urban model is based on the success of the Orangi Pilot Project (OPP). The Orangi Township is Pakistan's largest katchi abadi. Located in the western part of the city, this katchi abadi was established in the 1960s and it now covers an area of 8000 acres. The 100,000 houses in the area are home to approximately one million people belonging to lower and lower-middle income groups (World Resource Institution, 1997). Like other slum localities in Pakistan, Orangi Township lacked all civic amenities until 1980. The OPP is a story of local people organising themselves and taking initiatives on their own to build basic infrastructure for their community.
Originally, the OPP was undertaken in 1980 as a demonstration by a renowned Pakistani social scientist, Akhtar Hameed Khan. He organised 20 families in one lane to work on a self-help basis to develop sewage and drainage system for the local community and a solid road network. Initially, the residents provided free labour to build the system, but they expected financial assistance from the government for the cost of materials. They soon realised that government assistance would not be forthcoming. Encouraged by Akhtar Hameed Khan, community members generated the necessary funds by contributing $34 per house, and they provided labour on a purely voluntary basis. With the community's investment, the demonstration project was a success. Today, 72,000 households are served by sewers constructed by the residents of Orangi Township, with technical assistance from the OPP. The Orangi community has contributed US$ 2 million to build a sewage system, which traditionally is the responsibility of the government (World Resource Institution, 1997).
Once the sewage programme proved successful, the OPP slowly expanded to other development initiatives: basic health and family planning, credit and savings for small enterprises, upgrading of physical and academic conditions of local schools, and women's participation in development. Health concerns were an important motivator, specifically among mothers and their children. However, because of women's segregation in this society, conventional gender development models proved to be inadequate. In some areas of Pakistan, customs, laws, religious beliefs and attitudes confine women to their homes. To overcome these obstacles, a mobile health-training clinic, consisting of women doctors and educators, was organised to meet with groups of women in small neighborhoods. The OPP has strengthened the position of women in the Orangi community and has reinforced their participation in community activities.
In 1988, the project was upgraded and four autonomous institutions were established: (1) the OPP Research and Training Institute, (2) the Orangi Charitable Trust, (3) the Karachi Health and Social Development Association and (4) the OPP Society, which channels funds to these institutions from a Pakistani Charity, the Infaq Foundation. In 1992, a fifth institution called the Rural Development Trust was also established. The objective of these OPP institutions is to analyse outstanding problems with the help of the community members and to suggest viable solutions through technical assistance/advice, action research and education. These institutions have independent governing bodies with their own sources of income such as grants, donations and household contributions. All programmes are evaluated regularly and are modified on the basis of changing needs within the community. In essence, these programmes provide an enabling environment by mobilising local resources and by facilitating cooperative action through social and technical guidance.
Due to the success of the OPP, the Government of Pakistan and international donor agencies have replicated OPP's development strategy in other urban areas of Pakistan, after introducing necessary modifications to reflect local conditions and community needs.
The example of the OPP shows that the success of a community development initiative is not determined by the extent of the problem but it is determined by the extent of network resources that are mobilised to address the problem. The OPP development initiative has allowed residents to build new relationships and to launch themselves into self-organisation and self-sufficiency.

Summary of rural model

The Rural Support Programme (RSP) builds on broad-based participatory organisations whose membership consists of all adults in a community. Decision-making is done by the general body of the organisation, rather than by executive committees or elected representatives. The identification, implementation and maintenance of projects are undertaken by the community organisation, with technical and financial assistance provided by development agencies. The RSP model advocates collaboration with all institutions present within the area where development initiatives are underway. The community members work closely with representatives of government departments and all other stakeholders. As a result, this model has been successful in its development of relationships and community initiatives through help, support and guidance from government departments.
The rural model works with government departments, while the urban model does not. This is the major difference between them. Both models have been replicated in different parts of Pakistan and have experienced varying levels of success (Hussain, 1993). Additional examples of rural development in Pakistan may also be found in the case studies for Potohar Plateau and Peshawar & Swat in this resource.

Mangrove conservation: IUCN's Korangi Ecosystem Project

Mangroves are inter-tidal forests with great economic and ecological significance. The mangrove conservation efforts in Karachi provides another illustration of sustainable community development. Mangroves represent a unique type of ecosystem mostly found in salty habitats.

In Pakistan, mangroves are found along the southern borders of the country along the coast of Sindh and Balochistan. The Indus Delta extends to an area of approximately 600,000 hectares of which 160,000 consists of mangrove forests. These are unique in the sense that they are considered to be the largest area of arid climate mangroves in the world. At one time, eight different species of mangroves could be found in Pakistan, but today only four of them can be seen, e.g., Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops tagal and Aegiceras corniculata (WWF, 1997).
In the Karachi area, 135,000 people depend on the mangroves for their livelihood. For villages surrounding the forests, the mangroves provide food, fodder and fuel-wood. There are approximately 100,000 people who take a total of 18,000 tonnes of fuel-wood each year from the mangroves (Davis, 1993). In addition, 3,200 buffaloes and 6,000 camels also consume some 67 million kilograms of leaves and 19.5 million kilograms of grass (Qureshi, 1992). Much of Pakistan's fishing industry relies on the fish found in the mangroves, notably shrimp, which are the principal fisheries export of Pakistan. Of the US$ 100 million that Pakistan earns in fisheries foreign exchange, shrimp accounts for 68 percent (Davis, 1993). Mangroves are also important for recreation purposes with high potential for eco-tourism. The Indus Delta is an important migratory route for millions of waterfowl that need to feed and breed during the winter months. Some 80 species of birds, such as pelicans, flamingoes and herons may be found in the Indus Delta mangroves (IUCN, 1999). Mangrove forests also provide protection to the coastal areas from strong winds and ocean currents. Their vegetation also helps in reducing coastline erosion because the roots collect sediments that flow into the sea from the river.
Over the past 13 years, the degradation of Pakistan's mangroves has occurred at the rate of 6 percent per annum. As a result, only 16 percent of Pakistan's mangroves are thought to be healthy (Qureshi, 1992). The most harmful environmental stress that the mangroves face today derives largely from human activity. The steady growth of a major industrial city within the vicinity, the untreated sewage and industrial discharge, the increase in the demand for fuel wood, overgrazing and over-exploitation of resources are just a few of the strains on the mangrove's ecosystem. Steel mills, refineries and power stations are some of the large polluting industries found in the area. Tanneries are perhaps the worst. Their untreated effluents, massively loaded with heavy metals, are being disposed daily into the sea, thereby contaminating the food chain. High concentrations of heavy metal such as lead, zinc, copper, nickel, cadmium, mercury and cobalt have recently been recorded in marine biota and sediments (Davis, 1993). They are hazardous and poisonous for all forms of life.
Siltation - the increased salinity and reduction of incoming freshwater flows - also threatens the survival of the mangrove ecosystem. The estimated available freshwater flow of the Indus Delta is about 180 billion-m^�, carrying with it some 400 million tones of silt. However, construction of dams and irrigation channels has reduced the annual flow that reaches the mangroves to less than 43 billion m^� (Davis, 1993). Low levels of freshwater are related to a lack of metreing of the water used by surrounding industries. For example, Kinjhar Lake, which supplies freshwater to mangroves, is threatened with low levels of water. The reduced flow of freshwater has increased the soil salinity and has detrimentally affected the growth process of wildlife and vegetation.
Efforts to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution on mangroves focus on conservation and the management of the area. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) have undertaken a range of conservation initiatives in the area. One example is the Korangi Ecosystem Project administered by the IUCN.
Eco-tourism is the focus of IUCN's Korangi Ecosystem Project. Along with a one� kilometre boardwalk built in the mangroves, IUCN has undertaken basic environmental training with local teachers on environmental and conservation issues. IUCN began its operations by slowly building close relationships with the residents, in order to include surrounding communities in the conservation efforts. At first, communities in the area were not very receptive to this initiative, due mainly to their lack of knowledge about conservation issues. When they started trusting IUCN, however, they became open to receiving information about conservation and fuel-wood alternatives such as fuel-efficient stoves. Some time later, local communities assisted in the re-planting of trees which was�done in the most severely degraded areas.
Recently, The World Bank proposed that the mangrove area become a national park, and the IUCN asked that the area be designated a biosphere reserve. The biosphere reserve may serve to protect and contribute to the conservation of the area as well as foster economic and human development, enabling the communities to manage the natural resources themselves and ensure sustainability (Quraishy, 2000). Because of the high dependence of villagers on the mangrove resources, these proposals do not seem very practical to many.
Presently, there are three government bodies - the Sindh Forest Department, the Port Qasim Authority and the Board of Revenue - that control and manage different areas of the mangroves. However, only the Forest Department is involved in conservation efforts with the help of NGOs. Therefore, only a small change has been brought about in conservation of the mangroves of the area.

Industry and freshwater conservation: Haleji Lake

High levels of pollution and rapid urban sprawl are threatening many of Pakistan's natural sites. It was recently reported that some of the nation's most beautiful natural sites, including Haleji Lake, were in serious danger of being destroyed (Quraishy, 2000).

Haleji Lake, designated as a Ramsar¹ site in 1976, is located 80 km from Karachi and covers an area of about 12-16 km^�. The lake is set in stony desert of limestone and sandstone surrounded by marshes and lagoons. The lake area is considered to be Asia's largest wildlife sanctuary. At one time, maximum counts of wintering birds surpassed 100,000 with over 200 species having been recorded. However, the number of species in the area is rapidly decreasing due to a number of problems. Although internationally protected, this site has become endangered and has come close to extinction.
Haleji Lake was formed many years ago when seasonal rainwater accumulated in a shallow depression along with water gathering from a neighbouring saline lagoon. The lake was drained in the 1930s and transformed into a freshwater reservoir because military troops stationed in Karachi needed freshwater supplies (Sindh Wildlife Management Board, 1986). It was re-flooded with water coming from nearby Kinjhar Lake. Two main factors are cited as the source of lake's degradation: eutrophication² and bad governance. Before it was converted into a reservoir in the 1930s, the lake was in perfect balance with nature's ecosystem. By altering it into a freshwater basin, the lake's survival has become dependent on a continuous intake of freshwater and regular weed-cutting operations. However, all maintenance operations were abandoned a few years ago when the freshwater supply from Haleji Lake to Karachi City ceased. Weeds proliferated and accumulated, causing the oxygen levels in the lake to drastically drop. Now the lake is slowly choking. All levels of the food chain have been affected, including microorganisms, insects, fish and birds. Quraishy writes:

"This violent upheaval in biological balance and disruption in chain life has turned Haleji Lake into a colossal cesspool of misery for its flora and fauna."

When Haleji Lake was designated as a Ramsar site, the Sind Government assigned the maintenance operations to preserve the lake's ecological balance to the Karachi Water and Sewage Board. However, when freshwater supplies from Haleji Lake were no longer needed for Karachi, the Karachi Water and Sewage Board ceased all its maintenance operations without consulting the provincial government or anyone else. Lack of technical knowledge and financial resources seem to have prompted this decision.
The WWF-Pakistan, which is designated to watch over all Ramsar sites in Pakistan, is the only NGO involved in conservation of the Haleji area. In collaboration with the Provincial Government, it has initiated eco-tourism initiatives in the area. To create awareness about conservation and eco-tourism, it has also initiated dialogue with the surrounding communities. To clear the area from accumulating vegetation, the WWF-Pakistan is encouraging local residents to use lotus and other plants in the lake as fodder. Despite these well-intended conservation initiatives, the lake will continue to degrade until weed-cutting operations are resumed. Despite intervention by a Provincial Minister a few months ago, the weed cutting operations have not been resumed in the Haleji Lake (Pakistan Press International, 2000).
The communities around the Haleji Lake (declared a wildlife sanctuary) are extremely poor. They depend on the lake for fishing, farming and freshwater needs. People living in eleven villages around the lake are the direct stakeholders who also use lotus plant for their daily diet apart from using it for fodder and firewood (Environmental Management Consultants, 1999). Community development in the area has been neglected. The area has no electricity, no drinking water or sanitation facility, no nearby hospital and only one primary school. The question has been asked, "Does designating an area as [a] wildlife sanctuary in effect promote poverty and underdevelopment of affected communities?"

Industry and environmentally-sound practices: Power generation and leather tanneries

The state of the natural environment in a country is directly related to its level of industrial operations. With 45 percent of Pakistan's industries located in Karachi, the level of industrial pollution is growing at an unprecedented rate. Water pollution is causing the most severe damage to the surrounding environment and the health of residents. The linkage between industrial development and environmental degradation can have strong implications for sustainable community development in the region. Are community, national or global pressures forcing large industries to implement environmentally safe technologies? How so, and is the process gradual? In Pakistan, the national scene is characterised by the government's mounting pressure on industries to implement National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQs) for industrial effluents and air emissions.³ The implementation of environmentally-sound technologies in power generation and in the leather industry have helped community development.

¹Ramsar sites are known as protected areas by the Convention on Wetlands signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971. It is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. There are presently 123 Contracting Parties to the Convention, with 1040 wetland sites, totaling 78.4 million hectares, designated for inclusion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance.

²Eutrophication is an increase of nutritive substances (nitrate and phosphate) to a water recipient, and the results of this increase. Basically this occurs when plants die and sink to the bottom. Bacteria break down the dead plants dissolving oxygen in the water. When the levels of oxygen are too low, fish and other animals are in danger of dying.

Power generation: Hub Power Company

Whether power plants are run on fuel oils, gas or coal, they all affect the environment at some level. In addition, the construction or presence of a large power plant will in someway impact the lives of nearby communities.

There are two major types of pollution that result from power generation: water and air pollution. While few builders of power plants seem to give much thought to their impact on the surrounding environment, one company with a plant on the outskirts of Karachi is striving to enhance the rural area's social and economic development. The Hub Power Company (HUBCO) is a large, private-sector power company. HUBCO's 1200 megawatt plant is located 60 km from Karachi in Tehsil Hub, District Lasbella Balochistan (HUBCO, 1999b). Considerable investments have been made to meet environmental standards, and also to assist with the sustainable community development of 25 local communities.
Generating power includes many processes. The electricity at HUBCO is generated by four 323 megawatt oil-fired units that are supplied by a 78km long pipeline from Pakistan State Oil (HUBCO, 1999b). In simple terms, the electricity is produced when oil is heated with steam. In return, the high-pressure steam is used to activate the turbine, which creates electricity. The production process for power generation requires large quantities of water. Being near the coast, HUBCO retrieves 150 tones/hr of water from the Arabian Sea. In order to avoid corrosion and biological growth on the equipment, the seawater is pre-treated and desalinised. The large amounts of sludge created from this pre-treatment are disposed of at a nearby excavation site. Water is also used in the process for cooling the condensers. That wastewater is treated and discharged into the Hub River. In order to ensure the quality of the effluents discharged, control tests and analysis are carried out on a daily basis.
Boilers produce gas emissions, chiefly carbon dioxide (CO₂), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxide (NOx) and particulate matter. At HUBCO, these emissions are discharged to a chimney 200 meters high. Although pollution created from power plants is usually considerable, HUBCO claims to follow strict environmental standards throughout its operations. In 1997, HUBCO became Pakistan's first company to obtain the Environmental Management System of the International Standard called ISO 14001 (HUBCO, 1999a).
HUBCO has consistently maintained a close working relationship with the Provincial Government and the inhabitants of the area. The Government of Balochistan is represented on the HUBCO Board of Directors. Because HUBCO took great care in establishing relations with 25 surrounding communities early in the project, it now has an excellent rapport with them. Since the project's inception, HUBCO has employed a number of local residents. Specifically, during the construction phase over 2000 locals were employed (HUBCO, 1999a). Today, approximately 300 locals have been trained to work at the power plant.
The most remarkable aspect of HUBCO is its social programme. The programme targets health and education for the neighboring communities. Some of the benefits provided to the communities include basic health services with free medicine, a mobile medical unit, construction of wells and water-storage tanks, provision of books and computers to schools, and bus services. It has also provided electricity to some of the nearby communities. Finally, an apprentice-training centre has been established for upgrading the technical skills of local residents. Although this programme is not one in which communities participated in establishing or implementing the development initiatives, they have nonetheless benefited from much-needed resources. However, this raises concerns as to how the community will sustain itself if and when HUBCO leaves the area. The drawbacks of this type of social programme are the dependencies and expectations that have now been embedded within these communities.

³The change for environmental solutions in the industrial sector became a reality when ten years ago, the Government of Pakistan adopted its environmental policy namely, the National Conservation Strategy. In 1993, Pakistan Environmental Protection Council (established under the strategy) approved the National Environmental Quality Standards under which new industries were given a one-year period to comply with the NEQS while already established industries were given a three-year grace period. However, by 1995 it became apparent that compliance with the new legislation was not satisfactory due to a lack of institutional capacity with access to the latest environmental technologies, lack of financial resources, lack of environmental consultants and demonstration studies. As a result, the majority of industries were unable to comply with the legislation. In response to this crisis, in 1996, the Federal Pakistan Chamber of Commerce and Industry, in collaboration with Government of the Netherlands, formed the Environmental Technology Programme for Industry (ETPI). The programme's objective was to promote environmentally safe technologies in the industrial sectors (Ahmed, 1998). Since its creation, ETPI has established a network among industrial sectors so that dissemination and communication of cleaner production initiatives and solutions could be shared more easily among industries. It also provided institutional support and extensive training to industries. Perhaps ETPI's biggest success has been its demonstration projects covering 20 industrial sub-sectors, which demonstrate economic feasibility and efficiency of environmental technologies.

Leather industry: Pakistan Tanneries Association

The leather industry is one of the country's largest exporters of manufactured goods, and probably the most polluting of all industries. There are close to 600 tanneries in Pakistan and the majority of them are located in the Karachi industrial area.

Leather exports earn close to US$ 700 million in foreign exchange for Pakistan and employ more than 200,000 workers (ETPI, 1998). Not only are the tanneries affecting the environment but also the health of their workers and surrounding communities. A report from the Environmental Technology Programme for Industry indicated that respiratory disorders and skin infections were very common among tannery workers (ETPI, 1998).
The tanning process involves four major steps: pre-tanning, tanning, wet finish and finish. Chrome tanning is the most widely used method in Pakistan. Leather tanneries essentially cause three types of pollution: water, solid waste and air emissions.
In the tanning process, large quantities of water are used to clean the skins and also to facilitate different chemical reactions. On average, a single tannery generates 574 m^� per day of wastewater (ETPI, 1998). The effluents, which are charged with heavy metals, trimmings, salts, hair and flesh, flow into an open storm-water channel into the sea. Ultimately these effluents reach the mangrove area. In addition, they cause serious implications for human health, particularly for coastal villagers. There is currently no treatment of the effluents from any of the tanneries in the Karachi area. The second type of pollution comes from solid waste. This includes 100 to 195 tonnes per day of trimmings, shavings, buffing and packaging materials (PTA, 2000). The third type of pollution comes from air emissions, primarily ammonia and hydrogen sulfide. Although both compounds are known to be hazardous to the environment and the workers that are exposed to them, no data exists on emission rates in tanneries.
Tanneries have yet to operate in an "environment-friendly" fashion. Many smaller industries do not have access to the financial resources required to implement new environmental technologies, a situation considered to be the primary constraint to industrial environmental compliance in Pakistan.
Despite this grim picture, the Pakistan Tanneries Association (PTA) is an independent organisation formed by tannery owners in the Korangi area. It has started working towards alleviating the pollution levels through its Environmental Management Project for Korangi Tanneries. The project encompasses six components: (1) combined effluent treatment; (2) effluent collection and conveyance system; (3) pre-treatment of effluents within tanneries; (4) chromium recovery and re-use plants; (5) solid water management programme and (6) an occupational health and safety programme. Unfortunately, many of the project's components are yet to be implemented due to financial constraints. When the project started in 1992, the Dutch Government was to provide most of the funding. However, due to a recent dispute between the Dutch Government and the PTA, funding was refused. The PTA asserts that the partnership ended because the Dutch Government wanted to solely implement its own environmental technologies. The PTA wanted a development initiative that would allow its members to make decisions and take actions; not merely to respond to recommendations made by the Dutch Government. Since tanneries now have to fund the changes, implementation of the Environmental Management Project for Korangi Tanneries has slowed dramatically. A few components have already made an impact, however.
The project's Occupational Health and Safety Programme is underway and making a difference. Initially, both workers and managers in the tanneries were not very receptive to the proposed programme. This was because the workers were paid on a piece-rate basis (i.e. the number of skins processed) and the proposed measures meant slower production and consequently lower paychecks. In addition, most workers were unaware of the potentially hazardous conditions in which they worked. After a few workshops, workers are slowly changing their habits to reflect safety standards.
The PTA's Korangi project has also supported members of the community affected by the polluting practices. Air emissions and untreated effluents from neighbouring tanneries directly affect one million or more residents of Korangi Township. Prior to the PTA's initiative, the efforts of residents to unite themselves in asking tanneries to make changes met with reluctance. The tanneries employ many in the area, and workers feared losing jobs if they made any demands. Today, community members are generally happy about the changes that are expected to occur. Although they are not participating in the project, the implementation of optimal systems for the conveyance, treatment and disposal of effluents, sludge and solid waste, may not only lessen environmental degradation but may also improve working conditions for the workers and may reduce health hazards for the area inhabitants.

Conclusion

What ties these initiatives together is that they illustrate how community development has become increasingly complex in response to global trends. To be successful and sustainable, community development will need to fully include the social, natural and economic environments.

Many challenges still remain despite the many development initiatives that have been undertaken in the Karachi area. Overall, the biggest challenge will be for all stakeholders to work together towards a common goal and to implement lessons learned into the country's development policies. For community development to progress, acquired knowledge must be implemented as part of development policies.
It will be essential for community members to represent themselves effectively by developing their capacities to convince governments that development at the community level is an investment, not a cost. In addition, cooperation between local organisations, residents and the various levels of government will need to be improved considerably. The roles and responsibilities of each stakeholder will need to be defined.
The same approach will need to be applied to natural resource conservation. With the increase in pollution levels, it will be essential that terrestrial, freshwater, estuarine and marine systems be protected and effectively managed. By judiciously managing the mangroves, for example, it might be possible to derive timber products from mangrove forests without significantly degrading the environment. Judicious management might also maintain their value as a nursery and a source of food for commercial fisheries and local communities. However, stakeholders would have to agree on how exactly the area should be managed and to what extent each of them would participate. This would include members from communities, government, local NGOs and members of industry. All of these stakeholders would need to work together to properly assess positive or negative impacts on the natural environment as well as the surrounding communities.
Although industrial development is providing employment, it is adversely affecting the natural environment and the livelihood of surrounding communities. Pakistan's environmental policy is aimed at remedying this situation. However, Pakistan's response to its environmental legislation has been predominantly reactive in nature. A small number of industries have taken a proactive approach, recognising that management of environmental problems on a voluntary basis enhances their corporate image.
While environmental compliance has not been easy to implement, it is highly unlikely that setting up international standards such as ISO 14001 will alter the situation. Ahmed has estimated that in the next 10 years, close to US$ 2 billion needs to be invested by industries to comply with the international standards and legislation, which is highly unlikely for a country like Pakistan (Ahmed, 1999).

References

Ahmed, M. (1999). Towards Independence from Environmental Problems. The Federation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry. Karachi.
Davis, T .J.(1993). Towards the Wise Use of Wetlands. File 16: Case Study. Ramsar Convention Bureau. Gland, Switzerland.
Environmental Management Consultants (1999). Study of Hal eji Lake. Internal Paper. Karachi, March.
ETPI (1998). The Leather Sector - Environmental Report. The Federation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry. Karachi.
Hines, D. (1998). Participation: An Approach to Reach the Poor. Paper from the Strategy and Policy Division, World Food Program. Rome.
HUBCO (1999a). Local Impact. Information Booklet. The Hub Power Company Limited Karachi.
HUBCO (1999b). An introduction to the Hub Power Company Limited. Information Booklet. The Hub Power Company Limited. Karachi.
Human Rights Education Program (1998). The Orangi Pilot Project. Aware Newsletter. Issue 3. May-August.
Husain, T. (1993). Community Participation: The First Principal. A National Conservation Strategy Sector Paper. No.1. Government of Pakistan. Islamabad.
IUCN - Pakistan (1999). The Indus Delta Mangroves. Information Brochure. International Union for the Conservation of Nature Union. Karachi.
Maser, C. (1997). Sustainable Community Development: Principles and Concepts. St. Lucie Press, Florida.
Orangi Pilot Project (2000). 82^nd Quarterly Progress Report. Orangi Pilot Project. Karachi, June. Pakistan Press International (2000). Cleaning of Hal eji lake ordered. The Business Recorder. March 21.
Pakistan Tanneries Association (2000). Project Brief of the Environmental Management Project for KorangiTanneries. Pakistan Tanneries Association. Karachi.
Qureshi, T. (1992). Sustainable Management of Mangroves in the Indus Delta, The Korangi Ecosystem Project.Forest Department, Government of Sindh. Karachi.
Quraishy, A. (2000). Neglect Causing Hal eji Lake to Dry Up. Dawn Newspaper. July.
Sind Wildlife Management Board (1986). Hal eji Lake. Oscar Advertising Company. Karachi.
World Resource Institute (1997). A Guide to the Global Environment - The Urban Environment. World Resources Report 1996-1997. Washington D.C.
WWF (1987). The Green Gold. Information Booklet. The World Wide Fund for Nature. Karachi.

Interviews

Dr. Ijaz and Mr. Ali Hasnain, World Wide Fund for Nature, Karachi. Mr. Anwar Rashid, Director of OPP at Orangi Town
Mr. Tahir Qureshi, IUCN, Division Forest Officer, Government of Sindh. Mr. Vakil Ahmed, HUBCO
Mr. Kamal Shehryar, Pakistan Tanneries Association
Mr. Izhar-ul-Haq, NEC
Tannery workers and Korangi community representatives
Mr. Iqtidar Saeed, Project Manager, FFC Jordan

Urban Transport and Sustainable Transport Strategies:

http://qhxb.lib.tsinghua.edu.cn/myweb/english/2007/2007e3/309-317.pdf

TSINGHUA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
ISSN 1007-0214 12 /18 pp309-317
V o l u m e 1 2 , N u m b e r 3 , J u n e 2 0 0 7
Urban Transport and Sustainable Transport Strategies:
A Case Study of Karachi, Pakistan
*
Intikhab Ahmed Qureshi, LU Huapu (陆化普)
**
Institute of Transportation Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
Abstract: The uncontrolled growth in urbanization and motorization generally contributes to an urban land
use and transportation system that is socially, economically, and environmentally unsustainable. This paper
uses Karachi as a case study, which is the largest urban and economic centre of Pakistan, passing through
an uncontrolled phase of rapid urbanization and motorization. The paper first reviews research related to
sustainable transportation systems to comprehend the concept of sustainable development and transportation. The paper then evaluates the existing transportation and infrastructure system, national transportation
policies, and urban transportation projects to determine if the current paradigm is moving toward or away
from sustainable transportation. Furthermore, the principles for sustainable urban transportation are developed to see what significance national transportation policies have given to urban transportation from a sustainable transportation point of view. Finally some strategies are suggested, adoption of which may lead to a
sustainable urban development and transportation system in Karachi.
Key words: sustainable development; urbanization; motorization; socio-economic; integrated land use and
urban transportation system

Introduction
Urban transportation is a pressing concern in mega cities around the world. The rapid urbanization and motorization in these cities have a direct impact on sustainable development. The transport sector’s energy
consumption and greenhouse gas emissions will likely
be doubled by the year 2025
[1]
Moreover, the environmental and social impacts of urban transportation .
are increasingly being seen as a menace to the sustainability of the global ecology
[2]
.
The mitigation of transportation externalities requires a shift towards sustainable transportation systems. The idea of sustainable transportation emerges from the concept of sustainable development in the
transport sector and can be defined as follows
[3]
, “Sustainable transportation infrastructure and travel policies
that serve multiple goals of economic development,
environment stewardship and social equity, have the
objective to optimize the use of transportation systems
to achieve economic and related social and environmental goals, without sacrificing the ability of future
generations to achieve the same goals”.
Adoption of the principles of sustainable transportation has become more important in Karachi, where the
inefficient public transportation system and rising incomes have stimulated the demand for personal mobility with increased automobile ownership and use.
Growing motorization combined with inadequate traffic management strategies, an aging and ill maintained
vehicle stock, and inadequate land use and transportation planning, has all led to a significant level of traffic
congestion resulting in longer travel times, additional .

fuel consumption, high pollution levels, and a deteriorating urban environment that has a direct bearing on
sustainable development.
The concept of sustainable development and sustainable transportation systems can be understood by
exploring their evolution. In the 18th century economist and philosopher Thomas Malthus hypothesized
that improvements in the quality of life would stimulate population surges that would outpace increases in
the means of subsistence
[4]
The term sustainable development was first used by World Conservation Strategy (WCS) in 1980 to emphasize the significance of .
resource conservation without which humanity has no
future
[5]
Sustainable transportation is an expression of .
sustainable development in the transport sector. A review of the literature has shown a growing emphasis
on developing sustainable transportation systems as
well as policy-oriented studies
[5-7]
to address transportation related negative externalities such as air and
noise pollution, accidents, congestion and social exclusion, and to meet current and future mobility and accessibility needs without creating excessive negative
externalities. The reviews also established that sustainable transportation systems require a dynamic balance
between the main pillars of sustainable development,
i.e., environmental protection, social equity, and economic efficiency for current and future generations
[8-10]
.
Balancing of the various economic, social, and environmental factors is difficult so various attempts have
been made
[8,11,12]
to list indicators that may assist examination of the sustainability of transportation systems. However, one deficiency in the literature seems
to be the lack of consensus on which policies or initiatives will result in a sustainable transportation system,
while another deficiency is the lack of social aspects/indicators because of a lack of knowledge and of
techniques for assessing the social impact of transportation system changes.

The research is based on a case study of Karachi,
Pakistan. Karachi is a mega city having a population of
over 14 million. The city is the financial and business
hub of Pakistan and being the only port city, serves
Pakistan and the landlocked central Asian countries.
The study using available data evaluates the city’s urban development, transport and infrastructure systems,
environmental situation, transport policies, and transport projects. This evaluation seeks to identify if the
current paradigm is moving the city towards or away
from sustainable transportation. Some strategies are
suggested based on the evaluation.
1 Overview of Karachi’s Urban
Development
Karachi is characterized by an accelerating rate of suburban growth. Its growth rate has been phenomenal as
shown in Table 1. The city has seen a 35-fold increase
in its population and an almost 16-fold increase in its
spatial expansion since the emergence of Pakistan.
Moreover, estimates are that by the year 2015, the city
may reach a population of 19.2 million with an annual
growth rate of over 5%
[13]
.
Table 1 Karachi metropolitan population and area
growth rates1111111111111111111
Year Population (million) Area (km
2
(
1947 0.4 233
1981 5.3 1994
1998 9.8 3527
2004 14.0 3566

The population density of the city according to the
1998 census is tabulated in Table 2, which shows that
the density of different areas varies from the central
city (33 014 persons/km
2
) to the outskirts (433 persons/km
2
). Karachi is basically a mono centric city
where over 70% of the business services and about half

Table 2 Area, population, and population density of Karachi in 1998
[14]
Location
Area
(km
2
(
Population
(persons)
Density
(persons/ km
2
(
Urban propor-
tion (%)
Karachi East 139 2 746 014 19 756 100.0
Karachi West 929 2 105923 2267 190.7
Karachi South 122 1 745038 14 304 100.0
Karachi Central 69 2 277931 33 014 100.0
Malir 2268 981 412 433 67.3
Total 3527 9 856 318

of the retail trade and personal services are located in
the central business district (CBD). About 50% of the
employment in the wholesale trade and transport sector
is in the CBD.
Rapid population growth and spatial expansion have
led to a sharp increase in demand for urban transport
facilities and services as the densification and spatial
expansion have occurred with no development planning. Since 1949 five development plans have been
prepared for Karachi
[15]
, but never implemented. As a
consequence the city suffers from a chronic shortage of
basic facilities like dwelling units, water supply, electricity, and public transport. The shortage of dwelling
units has been largely responsible for the emergence of
squatter settlements. At present, about 55% of the total
population resides in these squatter settlements
[16]
The .
socio-economic and environmental conditions in these
settlements are dismal with the majority of these squatter settlements located far from the major job markets.
The residents of these areas are poor and are captive
riders of limited and low quality public transport
services.

2 Evaluation of Transportation and
Infrastructure Systems
The increased urbanization and economic growth in
the city has put a tremendous pressure on travel demands. The increased demand has quickly filled the
roadway infrastructure as about 33% of all motorized
vehicles in the country throng on its roads and
expressways.
Figure 1 shows that in 2002 the total registered vehicles and cars were growing at twice the growth rate
of the population while Fig. 2 shows that the vehicle
fleet is dominated by cars and motorcycles, which account for 92% of the vehicles as compared to 6% for
para transit vehicles and 2% for public transport vehicles. This rapid rise in personal vehicle ownership and
the lack of economic instruments, such as charged
parking and road pricing, has led to enormous congestion especially in the central part of the city which increases the average commute travel time in Karachi by
over 45 min.

2 Lyari expressway and Northern bypass
The construction of the 32.1 km long 4 lane Lyari expressway will improve inner city vehicular movement,
while the 57 km long 6 lane Northern bypass planned
to divert heavy upcountry traffic outside the city will
hopefully ease traffic pressure in the city and will give
a much cleaner and pleasant environment to the people.
Moreover, for fiscal year 2005-2006, the city government has approved Rupees 6.00 billion (US$ 100 million) for construction of roads, bridges, flyovers, under
passes, bus terminals, and other development works
[26]
and US$ 225 million for construction of a 24-km-long
elevated expressway
[27]
However, the current modernization of the transport infrastructure (construction .
of the elevated expressway, underpasses, flyovers, etc.)
which seeks to solve Karachi’s traffic congestion will
provide no more than temporary relief. The experience
of other mega cities suggests that a huge investment on
construction of high capacity roads and the provision
of a large number of flyovers and underpasses will not
mitigate traffic congestion or enhance vehicle speed.
For example, the congestion in Beijing can be quantified from the declining vehicle speeds from 45 km/h in
1994 to 10 km/h in 2005 especially between the second
and third ring roads, which is now extending beyond

fourth ring road and along major radial and arterial
roads
[28]
.
5.3 Rail-based mass transit system
A rail-based mass transit master plan has identified
three corridors with the revival of the KCR as an integral part of the system. The whole project will be built
on the Build Operate Transfer (BOT) basis. Figure 4
shows that Corridor 1 that runs northeast and southwest will be constructed in two stages. Stage one is a
15.2-km route which will have some elevated and
some underground portions, with Stage two extending
the system to another 8 km. Corridor 2 will have a
13.4-km line along the north and south axis of the city.
The KCR line needs revitalization for 50 km of length.
Fig. 4 Priority corridors of rail-based mass transit
system
[20]
6 Suggested Strategies
The evaluation of the transport and infrastructure system, transport policies, and development projects for
the Karachi urban transportation system in Sections 2,
4, and 5 leads to some strategies for sustainable development of the transportation system in Karachi. Suggested strategies on urban transportation system are
evaluated in Table 7.
6.1 Change the urban form and land use patterns
Karachi is basically a mono centric city where a large
proportion of activities are carried out in the CBD resulting in a great mismatch between jobs and residence
locations. To avoid overdevelopment of the CBD the
urban functions should be decentralized by developing
new urban areas and urban fringes by constructing
multiple business areas. Moreover, these multiple centers should be developed on the principles of
smart growth which requires balance between job and