Introduction
Community development is the tool by which "people empower themselves by increasing their ability to control their own lives in order to create a more fulfilling existence through mutual efforts to resolve shared problems" (Maser, 1997). In the early years of international development assistance, development initiatives were largely driven by a "top-to-bottom" approach. Projects were organised and executed by government's line departments, which often produced inappropriate solutions. For the past 20 years there has been a steady increase in new community development activities largely by non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the voluntary and donor sectors. As a result, community development initiatives have been transformed to what is now known as the "bottom-up" approach. This approach is based on the principle that people living in a community are the best source of information and the best resource to manage their needs.Community development occurs when donor agencies, NGOs or strong-minded individuals and groups introduce new initiatives for change. While communities may develop in different ways, community development is often identified with increasing the skills, knowledge and abilities of local residents. It also increases the ability of the community as a whole so that the acquired skills may be used to create strategies that take advantage of changing circumstances. Community development involves economic systems, local institutions, political leadership, social and cultural structures, and community spirit and participation (Hines, 1998).
How have communities evolved through development initiatives? How are they managing local resources, successfully or unsuccessfully? It is possible to look at these differences in examples of community development.
The coastal city of Karachi has experienced a variety of such community development initiatives. Some initiatives emerged as a spontaneous response by communities working on a self-help basis; others were driven by donors. There is a marked difference in the organisation and functioning of these two types of initiatives. Karachi's interesting mix of community initiatives is positive for local communities, and motivates their participation. This diversity is illustrated by a variety of approaches to sustainable community development, which together comprise this Case Study. The selected initiatives include the following:
- Urban model for community development: Orangi Pilot Project:
- Mangrove conservation: IUCN's Korangi Ecosystem Project
- Industry
- Freshwater conservation: Haleji Lake
- Power generation: Hub Power Company
- Leather industry: Pakistan Tanneries Association
*This case was completed under the guidance of Abid A. Burki who prepared the template for this case, read several drafts, offered comments and made numerous improvements throughout the writing process of this case. We have also benefited enormously from many useful comments made by Gillian Martin Mehers, Ali Tauqeer Sheikh, Naseer Ahmad Memon, Mazhar Iqbal Shaikh and M. Rafi Ghaus on an earlier draft. Our thanks also go to several colleagues at LEAD-Pakistan for their continued support and assistance in more ways than we can count. We also wish to express our gratitude to Shabbir Ahmad Qasuri for his research assistance. Finally, we wish to thank all the people from the projects who took the time to meet with us and provided us with essential information to write the case study.
Background
Karachi is the capital of the province of Sindh. The largest city in Pakistan, its diverse population is over 9 million. It is situated on the eastern coast of the Arabian Sea, surrounded by beaches such as Clifton Beach, French Beach, Hawks Bay, Sand Spit and Paradise Point.
This ultra-modern city has many bazaars, hi-tech electronic shops, old buildings and modern hotels. An influx of people from all parts of Pakistan has led to an enormous rise in the population and the emergence of several residential colonies to accommodate the new residents.Karachi's recorded history goes back many centuries, to a time when it was a small fishing village known as Kolachi. With the rapid development of its seaport and harbour, Karachi progressively grew into a mega-city and an important centre for international trade, business and industry. The city has played a vital and dominant role in Pakistan's economy. Karachi became the capital of Pakistan after Independence in 1947, adding to its importance. Although the seat of Government has now been shifted to Islamabad, Karachi still remains the epicentre of commerce and industry.
Karachi was also the gateway to the Indus Valley civilisation, which flourished around 2,500 B.C. In fact, the ports used today were used at that time for trading activities with other civilisations. The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilisations of China, Egypt, India and Mesopotamia. Most of the Indus Valley ruins, including major cities, remain to be excavated.
In rural and urban areas of Pakistan, residents suffer from a growing list of problems including lack of employment opportunities, erosion of public infrastructure, and inadequate educational facilities. One of the most challenging problems is the increasing lack of involvement from governmental authorities. In response, communities have become increasingly active in arenas that once were considered outside their concern. This case study will establish a framework for understanding the emergence of complex community development. Examples from local initiatives will be used to illustrate the challenges related to community development.
Urban model for community development: Orangi Pilot Project
In recent years, Karachi has experienced an influx of migrants from all parts of Pakistan in search of a source of livelihood and better opportunities. Many of the migrants to large cities settle in katchi abadis (slums) where municipal infrastructure such as roads, water supplies and drainage is either under enormous strain or non-existent.
Karachi has about 650 katchi abadis, which are home to 40 percent of the city's population (Human Rights Education Programme, 1998). While there are many types of community development models being used elsewhere in the world, the models followed in Pakistan fall into two categories: those designed for urban slums and those for rural areas.The urban model is based on the success of the Orangi Pilot Project (OPP). The Orangi Township is Pakistan's largest katchi abadi. Located in the western part of the city, this katchi abadi was established in the 1960s and it now covers an area of 8000 acres. The 100,000 houses in the area are home to approximately one million people belonging to lower and lower-middle income groups (World Resource Institution, 1997). Like other slum localities in Pakistan, Orangi Township lacked all civic amenities until 1980. The OPP is a story of local people organising themselves and taking initiatives on their own to build basic infrastructure for their community.
Originally, the OPP was undertaken in 1980 as a demonstration by a renowned Pakistani social scientist, Akhtar Hameed Khan. He organised 20 families in one lane to work on a self-help basis to develop sewage and drainage system for the local community and a solid road network. Initially, the residents provided free labour to build the system, but they expected financial assistance from the government for the cost of materials. They soon realised that government assistance would not be forthcoming. Encouraged by Akhtar Hameed Khan, community members generated the necessary funds by contributing $34 per house, and they provided labour on a purely voluntary basis. With the community's investment, the demonstration project was a success. Today, 72,000 households are served by sewers constructed by the residents of Orangi Township, with technical assistance from the OPP. The Orangi community has contributed US$ 2 million to build a sewage system, which traditionally is the responsibility of the government (World Resource Institution, 1997).
Once the sewage programme proved successful, the OPP slowly expanded to other development initiatives: basic health and family planning, credit and savings for small enterprises, upgrading of physical and academic conditions of local schools, and women's participation in development. Health concerns were an important motivator, specifically among mothers and their children. However, because of women's segregation in this society, conventional gender development models proved to be inadequate. In some areas of Pakistan, customs, laws, religious beliefs and attitudes confine women to their homes. To overcome these obstacles, a mobile health-training clinic, consisting of women doctors and educators, was organised to meet with groups of women in small neighborhoods. The OPP has strengthened the position of women in the Orangi community and has reinforced their participation in community activities.
In 1988, the project was upgraded and four autonomous institutions were established: (1) the OPP Research and Training Institute, (2) the Orangi Charitable Trust, (3) the Karachi Health and Social Development Association and (4) the OPP Society, which channels funds to these institutions from a Pakistani Charity, the Infaq Foundation. In 1992, a fifth institution called the Rural Development Trust was also established. The objective of these OPP institutions is to analyse outstanding problems with the help of the community members and to suggest viable solutions through technical assistance/advice, action research and education. These institutions have independent governing bodies with their own sources of income such as grants, donations and household contributions. All programmes are evaluated regularly and are modified on the basis of changing needs within the community. In essence, these programmes provide an enabling environment by mobilising local resources and by facilitating cooperative action through social and technical guidance.
Due to the success of the OPP, the Government of Pakistan and international donor agencies have replicated OPP's development strategy in other urban areas of Pakistan, after introducing necessary modifications to reflect local conditions and community needs.
The example of the OPP shows that the success of a community development initiative is not determined by the extent of the problem but it is determined by the extent of network resources that are mobilised to address the problem. The OPP development initiative has allowed residents to build new relationships and to launch themselves into self-organisation and self-sufficiency.
Summary of rural model
The Rural Support Programme (RSP) builds on broad-based participatory organisations whose membership consists of all adults in a community. Decision-making is done by the general body of the organisation, rather than by executive committees or elected representatives. The identification, implementation and maintenance of projects are undertaken by the community organisation, with technical and financial assistance provided by development agencies. The RSP model advocates collaboration with all institutions present within the area where development initiatives are underway. The community members work closely with representatives of government departments and all other stakeholders. As a result, this model has been successful in its development of relationships and community initiatives through help, support and guidance from government departments.The rural model works with government departments, while the urban model does not. This is the major difference between them. Both models have been replicated in different parts of Pakistan and have experienced varying levels of success (Hussain, 1993). Additional examples of rural development in Pakistan may also be found in the case studies for Potohar Plateau and Peshawar & Swat in this resource.
Mangrove conservation: IUCN's Korangi Ecosystem Project
Mangroves are inter-tidal forests with great economic and ecological significance. The mangrove conservation efforts in Karachi provides another illustration of sustainable community development. Mangroves represent a unique type of ecosystem mostly found in salty habitats.
In Pakistan, mangroves are found along the southern borders of the country along the coast of Sindh and Balochistan. The Indus Delta extends to an area of approximately 600,000 hectares of which 160,000 consists of mangrove forests. These are unique in the sense that they are considered to be the largest area of arid climate mangroves in the world. At one time, eight different species of mangroves could be found in Pakistan, but today only four of them can be seen, e.g., Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops tagal and Aegiceras corniculata (WWF, 1997).In the Karachi area, 135,000 people depend on the mangroves for their livelihood. For villages surrounding the forests, the mangroves provide food, fodder and fuel-wood. There are approximately 100,000 people who take a total of 18,000 tonnes of fuel-wood each year from the mangroves (Davis, 1993). In addition, 3,200 buffaloes and 6,000 camels also consume some 67 million kilograms of leaves and 19.5 million kilograms of grass (Qureshi, 1992). Much of Pakistan's fishing industry relies on the fish found in the mangroves, notably shrimp, which are the principal fisheries export of Pakistan. Of the US$ 100 million that Pakistan earns in fisheries foreign exchange, shrimp accounts for 68 percent (Davis, 1993). Mangroves are also important for recreation purposes with high potential for eco-tourism. The Indus Delta is an important migratory route for millions of waterfowl that need to feed and breed during the winter months. Some 80 species of birds, such as pelicans, flamingoes and herons may be found in the Indus Delta mangroves (IUCN, 1999). Mangrove forests also provide protection to the coastal areas from strong winds and ocean currents. Their vegetation also helps in reducing coastline erosion because the roots collect sediments that flow into the sea from the river.
Over the past 13 years, the degradation of Pakistan's mangroves has occurred at the rate of 6 percent per annum. As a result, only 16 percent of Pakistan's mangroves are thought to be healthy (Qureshi, 1992). The most harmful environmental stress that the mangroves face today derives largely from human activity. The steady growth of a major industrial city within the vicinity, the untreated sewage and industrial discharge, the increase in the demand for fuel wood, overgrazing and over-exploitation of resources are just a few of the strains on the mangrove's ecosystem. Steel mills, refineries and power stations are some of the large polluting industries found in the area. Tanneries are perhaps the worst. Their untreated effluents, massively loaded with heavy metals, are being disposed daily into the sea, thereby contaminating the food chain. High concentrations of heavy metal such as lead, zinc, copper, nickel, cadmium, mercury and cobalt have recently been recorded in marine biota and sediments (Davis, 1993). They are hazardous and poisonous for all forms of life.
Siltation - the increased salinity and reduction of incoming freshwater flows - also threatens the survival of the mangrove ecosystem. The estimated available freshwater flow of the Indus Delta is about 180 billion-m�, carrying with it some 400 million tones of silt. However, construction of dams and irrigation channels has reduced the annual flow that reaches the mangroves to less than 43 billion m� (Davis, 1993). Low levels of freshwater are related to a lack of metreing of the water used by surrounding industries. For example, Kinjhar Lake, which supplies freshwater to mangroves, is threatened with low levels of water. The reduced flow of freshwater has increased the soil salinity and has detrimentally affected the growth process of wildlife and vegetation.
Efforts to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution on mangroves focus on conservation and the management of the area. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) have undertaken a range of conservation initiatives in the area. One example is the Korangi Ecosystem Project administered by the IUCN.
Eco-tourism is the focus of IUCN's Korangi Ecosystem Project. Along with a one� kilometre boardwalk built in the mangroves, IUCN has undertaken basic environmental training with local teachers on environmental and conservation issues. IUCN began its operations by slowly building close relationships with the residents, in order to include surrounding communities in the conservation efforts. At first, communities in the area were not very receptive to this initiative, due mainly to their lack of knowledge about conservation issues. When they started trusting IUCN, however, they became open to receiving information about conservation and fuel-wood alternatives such as fuel-efficient stoves. Some time later, local communities assisted in the re-planting of trees which was�done in the most severely degraded areas.
Recently, The World Bank proposed that the mangrove area become a national park, and the IUCN asked that the area be designated a biosphere reserve. The biosphere reserve may serve to protect and contribute to the conservation of the area as well as foster economic and human development, enabling the communities to manage the natural resources themselves and ensure sustainability (Quraishy, 2000). Because of the high dependence of villagers on the mangrove resources, these proposals do not seem very practical to many.
Presently, there are three government bodies - the Sindh Forest Department, the Port Qasim Authority and the Board of Revenue - that control and manage different areas of the mangroves. However, only the Forest Department is involved in conservation efforts with the help of NGOs. Therefore, only a small change has been brought about in conservation of the mangroves of the area.
Industry and freshwater conservation: Haleji Lake
High levels of pollution and rapid urban sprawl are threatening many of Pakistan's natural sites. It was recently reported that some of the nation's most beautiful natural sites, including Haleji Lake, were in serious danger of being destroyed (Quraishy, 2000).
Haleji Lake, designated as a Ramsar1 site in 1976, is located 80 km from Karachi and covers an area of about 12-16 km�. The lake is set in stony desert of limestone and sandstone surrounded by marshes and lagoons. The lake area is considered to be Asia's largest wildlife sanctuary. At one time, maximum counts of wintering birds surpassed 100,000 with over 200 species having been recorded. However, the number of species in the area is rapidly decreasing due to a number of problems. Although internationally protected, this site has become endangered and has come close to extinction.Haleji Lake was formed many years ago when seasonal rainwater accumulated in a shallow depression along with water gathering from a neighbouring saline lagoon. The lake was drained in the 1930s and transformed into a freshwater reservoir because military troops stationed in Karachi needed freshwater supplies (Sindh Wildlife Management Board, 1986). It was re-flooded with water coming from nearby Kinjhar Lake. Two main factors are cited as the source of lake's degradation: eutrophication2 and bad governance. Before it was converted into a reservoir in the 1930s, the lake was in perfect balance with nature's ecosystem. By altering it into a freshwater basin, the lake's survival has become dependent on a continuous intake of freshwater and regular weed-cutting operations. However, all maintenance operations were abandoned a few years ago when the freshwater supply from Haleji Lake to Karachi City ceased. Weeds proliferated and accumulated, causing the oxygen levels in the lake to drastically drop. Now the lake is slowly choking. All levels of the food chain have been affected, including microorganisms, insects, fish and birds. Quraishy writes:
"This violent upheaval in biological balance and disruption in chain life has turned Haleji Lake into a colossal cesspool of misery for its flora and fauna."When Haleji Lake was designated as a Ramsar site, the Sind Government assigned the maintenance operations to preserve the lake's ecological balance to the Karachi Water and Sewage Board. However, when freshwater supplies from Haleji Lake were no longer needed for Karachi, the Karachi Water and Sewage Board ceased all its maintenance operations without consulting the provincial government or anyone else. Lack of technical knowledge and financial resources seem to have prompted this decision.
The WWF-Pakistan, which is designated to watch over all Ramsar sites in Pakistan, is the only NGO involved in conservation of the Haleji area. In collaboration with the Provincial Government, it has initiated eco-tourism initiatives in the area. To create awareness about conservation and eco-tourism, it has also initiated dialogue with the surrounding communities. To clear the area from accumulating vegetation, the WWF-Pakistan is encouraging local residents to use lotus and other plants in the lake as fodder. Despite these well-intended conservation initiatives, the lake will continue to degrade until weed-cutting operations are resumed. Despite intervention by a Provincial Minister a few months ago, the weed cutting operations have not been resumed in the Haleji Lake (Pakistan Press International, 2000).
The communities around the Haleji Lake (declared a wildlife sanctuary) are extremely poor. They depend on the lake for fishing, farming and freshwater needs. People living in eleven villages around the lake are the direct stakeholders who also use lotus plant for their daily diet apart from using it for fodder and firewood (Environmental Management Consultants, 1999). Community development in the area has been neglected. The area has no electricity, no drinking water or sanitation facility, no nearby hospital and only one primary school. The question has been asked, "Does designating an area as [a] wildlife sanctuary in effect promote poverty and underdevelopment of affected communities?"
Industry and environmentally-sound practices: Power generation and leather tanneries
The state of the natural environment in a country is directly related to its level of industrial operations. With 45 percent of Pakistan's industries located in Karachi, the level of industrial pollution is growing at an unprecedented rate. Water pollution is causing the most severe damage to the surrounding environment and the health of residents. The linkage between industrial development and environmental degradation can have strong implications for sustainable community development in the region. Are community, national or global pressures forcing large industries to implement environmentally safe technologies? How so, and is the process gradual? In Pakistan, the national scene is characterised by the government's mounting pressure on industries to implement National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQs) for industrial effluents and air emissions.3 The implementation of environmentally-sound technologies in power generation and in the leather industry have helped community development.1Ramsar sites are known as protected areas by the Convention on Wetlands signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971. It is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. There are presently 123 Contracting Parties to the Convention, with 1040 wetland sites, totaling 78.4 million hectares, designated for inclusion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance.2Eutrophication is an increase of nutritive substances (nitrate and phosphate) to a water recipient, and the results of this increase. Basically this occurs when plants die and sink to the bottom. Bacteria break down the dead plants dissolving oxygen in the water. When the levels of oxygen are too low, fish and other animals are in danger of dying.
Power generation: Hub Power Company
Whether power plants are run on fuel oils, gas or coal, they all affect the environment at some level. In addition, the construction or presence of a large power plant will in someway impact the lives of nearby communities.
There are two major types of pollution that result from power generation: water and air pollution. While few builders of power plants seem to give much thought to their impact on the surrounding environment, one company with a plant on the outskirts of Karachi is striving to enhance the rural area's social and economic development. The Hub Power Company (HUBCO) is a large, private-sector power company. HUBCO's 1200 megawatt plant is located 60 km from Karachi in Tehsil Hub, District Lasbella Balochistan (HUBCO, 1999b). Considerable investments have been made to meet environmental standards, and also to assist with the sustainable community development of 25 local communities.Generating power includes many processes. The electricity at HUBCO is generated by four 323 megawatt oil-fired units that are supplied by a 78km long pipeline from Pakistan State Oil (HUBCO, 1999b). In simple terms, the electricity is produced when oil is heated with steam. In return, the high-pressure steam is used to activate the turbine, which creates electricity. The production process for power generation requires large quantities of water. Being near the coast, HUBCO retrieves 150 tones/hr of water from the Arabian Sea. In order to avoid corrosion and biological growth on the equipment, the seawater is pre-treated and desalinised. The large amounts of sludge created from this pre-treatment are disposed of at a nearby excavation site. Water is also used in the process for cooling the condensers. That wastewater is treated and discharged into the Hub River. In order to ensure the quality of the effluents discharged, control tests and analysis are carried out on a daily basis.
Boilers produce gas emissions, chiefly carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxide (NOx) and particulate matter. At HUBCO, these emissions are discharged to a chimney 200 meters high. Although pollution created from power plants is usually considerable, HUBCO claims to follow strict environmental standards throughout its operations. In 1997, HUBCO became Pakistan's first company to obtain the Environmental Management System of the International Standard called ISO 14001 (HUBCO, 1999a).
HUBCO has consistently maintained a close working relationship with the Provincial Government and the inhabitants of the area. The Government of Balochistan is represented on the HUBCO Board of Directors. Because HUBCO took great care in establishing relations with 25 surrounding communities early in the project, it now has an excellent rapport with them. Since the project's inception, HUBCO has employed a number of local residents. Specifically, during the construction phase over 2000 locals were employed (HUBCO, 1999a). Today, approximately 300 locals have been trained to work at the power plant.
The most remarkable aspect of HUBCO is its social programme. The programme targets health and education for the neighboring communities. Some of the benefits provided to the communities include basic health services with free medicine, a mobile medical unit, construction of wells and water-storage tanks, provision of books and computers to schools, and bus services. It has also provided electricity to some of the nearby communities. Finally, an apprentice-training centre has been established for upgrading the technical skills of local residents. Although this programme is not one in which communities participated in establishing or implementing the development initiatives, they have nonetheless benefited from much-needed resources. However, this raises concerns as to how the community will sustain itself if and when HUBCO leaves the area. The drawbacks of this type of social programme are the dependencies and expectations that have now been embedded within these communities.
3The change for environmental solutions in the industrial sector became a reality when ten years ago, the Government of Pakistan adopted its environmental policy namely, the National Conservation Strategy. In 1993, Pakistan Environmental Protection Council (established under the strategy) approved the National Environmental Quality Standards under which new industries were given a one-year period to comply with the NEQS while already established industries were given a three-year grace period. However, by 1995 it became apparent that compliance with the new legislation was not satisfactory due to a lack of institutional capacity with access to the latest environmental technologies, lack of financial resources, lack of environmental consultants and demonstration studies. As a result, the majority of industries were unable to comply with the legislation. In response to this crisis, in 1996, the Federal Pakistan Chamber of Commerce and Industry, in collaboration with Government of the Netherlands, formed the Environmental Technology Programme for Industry (ETPI). The programme's objective was to promote environmentally safe technologies in the industrial sectors (Ahmed, 1998). Since its creation, ETPI has established a network among industrial sectors so that dissemination and communication of cleaner production initiatives and solutions could be shared more easily among industries. It also provided institutional support and extensive training to industries. Perhaps ETPI's biggest success has been its demonstration projects covering 20 industrial sub-sectors, which demonstrate economic feasibility and efficiency of environmental technologies.
Leather industry: Pakistan Tanneries Association
The leather industry is one of the country's largest exporters of manufactured goods, and probably the most polluting of all industries. There are close to 600 tanneries in Pakistan and the majority of them are located in the Karachi industrial area.
Leather exports earn close to US$ 700 million in foreign exchange for Pakistan and employ more than 200,000 workers (ETPI, 1998). Not only are the tanneries affecting the environment but also the health of their workers and surrounding communities. A report from the Environmental Technology Programme for Industry indicated that respiratory disorders and skin infections were very common among tannery workers (ETPI, 1998).The tanning process involves four major steps: pre-tanning, tanning, wet finish and finish. Chrome tanning is the most widely used method in Pakistan. Leather tanneries essentially cause three types of pollution: water, solid waste and air emissions.
In the tanning process, large quantities of water are used to clean the skins and also to facilitate different chemical reactions. On average, a single tannery generates 574 m� per day of wastewater (ETPI, 1998). The effluents, which are charged with heavy metals, trimmings, salts, hair and flesh, flow into an open storm-water channel into the sea. Ultimately these effluents reach the mangrove area. In addition, they cause serious implications for human health, particularly for coastal villagers. There is currently no treatment of the effluents from any of the tanneries in the Karachi area. The second type of pollution comes from solid waste. This includes 100 to 195 tonnes per day of trimmings, shavings, buffing and packaging materials (PTA, 2000). The third type of pollution comes from air emissions, primarily ammonia and hydrogen sulfide. Although both compounds are known to be hazardous to the environment and the workers that are exposed to them, no data exists on emission rates in tanneries.
Tanneries have yet to operate in an "environment-friendly" fashion. Many smaller industries do not have access to the financial resources required to implement new environmental technologies, a situation considered to be the primary constraint to industrial environmental compliance in Pakistan.
Despite this grim picture, the Pakistan Tanneries Association (PTA) is an independent organisation formed by tannery owners in the Korangi area. It has started working towards alleviating the pollution levels through its Environmental Management Project for Korangi Tanneries. The project encompasses six components: (1) combined effluent treatment; (2) effluent collection and conveyance system; (3) pre-treatment of effluents within tanneries; (4) chromium recovery and re-use plants; (5) solid water management programme and (6) an occupational health and safety programme. Unfortunately, many of the project's components are yet to be implemented due to financial constraints. When the project started in 1992, the Dutch Government was to provide most of the funding. However, due to a recent dispute between the Dutch Government and the PTA, funding was refused. The PTA asserts that the partnership ended because the Dutch Government wanted to solely implement its own environmental technologies. The PTA wanted a development initiative that would allow its members to make decisions and take actions; not merely to respond to recommendations made by the Dutch Government. Since tanneries now have to fund the changes, implementation of the Environmental Management Project for Korangi Tanneries has slowed dramatically. A few components have already made an impact, however.
The project's Occupational Health and Safety Programme is underway and making a difference. Initially, both workers and managers in the tanneries were not very receptive to the proposed programme. This was because the workers were paid on a piece-rate basis (i.e. the number of skins processed) and the proposed measures meant slower production and consequently lower paychecks. In addition, most workers were unaware of the potentially hazardous conditions in which they worked. After a few workshops, workers are slowly changing their habits to reflect safety standards.
The PTA's Korangi project has also supported members of the community affected by the polluting practices. Air emissions and untreated effluents from neighbouring tanneries directly affect one million or more residents of Korangi Township. Prior to the PTA's initiative, the efforts of residents to unite themselves in asking tanneries to make changes met with reluctance. The tanneries employ many in the area, and workers feared losing jobs if they made any demands. Today, community members are generally happy about the changes that are expected to occur. Although they are not participating in the project, the implementation of optimal systems for the conveyance, treatment and disposal of effluents, sludge and solid waste, may not only lessen environmental degradation but may also improve working conditions for the workers and may reduce health hazards for the area inhabitants.
Conclusion
What ties these initiatives together is that they illustrate how community development has become increasingly complex in response to global trends. To be successful and sustainable, community development will need to fully include the social, natural and economic environments.
Many challenges still remain despite the many development initiatives that have been undertaken in the Karachi area. Overall, the biggest challenge will be for all stakeholders to work together towards a common goal and to implement lessons learned into the country's development policies. For community development to progress, acquired knowledge must be implemented as part of development policies.It will be essential for community members to represent themselves effectively by developing their capacities to convince governments that development at the community level is an investment, not a cost. In addition, cooperation between local organisations, residents and the various levels of government will need to be improved considerably. The roles and responsibilities of each stakeholder will need to be defined.
The same approach will need to be applied to natural resource conservation. With the increase in pollution levels, it will be essential that terrestrial, freshwater, estuarine and marine systems be protected and effectively managed. By judiciously managing the mangroves, for example, it might be possible to derive timber products from mangrove forests without significantly degrading the environment. Judicious management might also maintain their value as a nursery and a source of food for commercial fisheries and local communities. However, stakeholders would have to agree on how exactly the area should be managed and to what extent each of them would participate. This would include members from communities, government, local NGOs and members of industry. All of these stakeholders would need to work together to properly assess positive or negative impacts on the natural environment as well as the surrounding communities.
Although industrial development is providing employment, it is adversely affecting the natural environment and the livelihood of surrounding communities. Pakistan's environmental policy is aimed at remedying this situation. However, Pakistan's response to its environmental legislation has been predominantly reactive in nature. A small number of industries have taken a proactive approach, recognising that management of environmental problems on a voluntary basis enhances their corporate image.
While environmental compliance has not been easy to implement, it is highly unlikely that setting up international standards such as ISO 14001 will alter the situation. Ahmed has estimated that in the next 10 years, close to US$ 2 billion needs to be invested by industries to comply with the international standards and legislation, which is highly unlikely for a country like Pakistan (Ahmed, 1999).
References
Ahmed, M. (1999). Towards Independence from Environmental Problems. The Federation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry. Karachi.Davis, T .J.(1993). Towards the Wise Use of Wetlands. File 16: Case Study. Ramsar Convention Bureau. Gland, Switzerland.
Environmental Management Consultants (1999). Study of Hal eji Lake. Internal Paper. Karachi, March.
ETPI (1998). The Leather Sector - Environmental Report. The Federation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry. Karachi.
Hines, D. (1998). Participation: An Approach to Reach the Poor. Paper from the Strategy and Policy Division, World Food Program. Rome.
HUBCO (1999a). Local Impact. Information Booklet. The Hub Power Company Limited Karachi.
HUBCO (1999b). An introduction to the Hub Power Company Limited. Information Booklet. The Hub Power Company Limited. Karachi.
Human Rights Education Program (1998). The Orangi Pilot Project. Aware Newsletter. Issue 3. May-August.
Husain, T. (1993). Community Participation: The First Principal. A National Conservation Strategy Sector Paper. No.1. Government of Pakistan. Islamabad.
IUCN - Pakistan (1999). The Indus Delta Mangroves. Information Brochure. International Union for the Conservation of Nature Union. Karachi.
Maser, C. (1997). Sustainable Community Development: Principles and Concepts. St. Lucie Press, Florida.
Orangi Pilot Project (2000). 82nd Quarterly Progress Report. Orangi Pilot Project. Karachi, June. Pakistan Press International (2000). Cleaning of Hal eji lake ordered. The Business Recorder. March 21.
Pakistan Tanneries Association (2000). Project Brief of the Environmental Management Project for KorangiTanneries. Pakistan Tanneries Association. Karachi.
Qureshi, T. (1992). Sustainable Management of Mangroves in the Indus Delta, The Korangi Ecosystem Project.Forest Department, Government of Sindh. Karachi.
Quraishy, A. (2000). Neglect Causing Hal eji Lake to Dry Up. Dawn Newspaper. July.
Sind Wildlife Management Board (1986). Hal eji Lake. Oscar Advertising Company. Karachi.
World Resource Institute (1997). A Guide to the Global Environment - The Urban Environment. World Resources Report 1996-1997. Washington D.C.
WWF (1987). The Green Gold. Information Booklet. The World Wide Fund for Nature. Karachi.
Interviews
Dr. Ijaz and Mr. Ali Hasnain, World Wide Fund for Nature, Karachi. Mr. Anwar Rashid, Director of OPP at Orangi TownMr. Tahir Qureshi, IUCN, Division Forest Officer, Government of Sindh. Mr. Vakil Ahmed, HUBCO
Mr. Kamal Shehryar, Pakistan Tanneries Association
Mr. Izhar-ul-Haq, NEC
Tannery workers and Korangi community representatives
Mr. Iqtidar Saeed, Project Manager, FFC Jordan
