Thursday 24 March 2011

The fast growing megacity Karachi as a frontier of environimental challenges



http://www.academicjournals.org/jgrp/PDF/pdf2010/Nov/Qureshi.pdf




Full Length Research Paper


The fast growing megacity Karachi as a frontier of
environimental challenges: Urbanization and
contemporary urbanism issues
Salman Qureshi

The megacity Karachi, as a globalized complex, is the business capital of Pakistan and had been the
federal capital until 1958. It is one of the most important cities of the world in terms of population,
economic potential and geo-strategic location. A growing body of infrastructural development during
this decade has thoroughly changed the landscape of the city. The recent development pattern
proclaims it as one of the most fashionable and futuristic global city. On one side, it accommodates
more than 539 squatter settlements and at the same time, the sky scrapers in the city serves as
business and technological parks for the country as a whole. Several researches, supporting
authorities and scientists, are focusing on megacities as unique ecosystems worldwide. Unfortunately,
Karachi seems abortive in attracting the focus of the scientific community. This paper aims to present a
synoptic view of this city by highlighting the contemporary urbanism issues like urbanization trend,
environmental quality (physical and built), socio-cultural imbalance, economic settings and urban
planning and it is further substantiated with an overview of geography and administrative skeleton. The
rebirth of the city’s landscape (after the administrative devolution in 2001) has been discussed
discretely. An effort has been made to represent explicit urban indicators which could assist to have a
generalized perception about the important elements and characteristics of the city. However, a major
approach is to underline the sensitivity of Karachi as a challenge for environmental and urban planning
and an acute opportunity of research, where the discussion embarks on the requirement of thorough
transdisciplinary approaches to study such urban systems.
Key words: Sindh, Pakistan, megacity, sustainable development, mega urbanization, urban regeneration,
urbanism.


INTRODUCTION
Megacities are special ecosystems with complex landuse that sometimes function with predetermined plans.
Nevertheless, it expands with paradigmatic phenomenon.
This expansion seems to be multifaceted more in
developing countries where the urban population is
increasing with substantial rate (Qureshi and Breuste,
2009). Demographic trend insinuates that urban areas
will increasingly become the primary habitat for humans.
Although their consumption of resources reaches into
diverse ecosystems near and far (Wu, 2008),
unfortunately, their role in global sustainability is not yet
recognized profoundly. Cities themselves present both
the problems and solutions to sustainability challenges of

an increasingly urbanized world (Grimm et al., 2008).
Specifically, the megacities are ‘laboratories’ in which
solutions for environmental challenges can and should be
developed (Kraas, 2007).
Karachi is a mushroom city, ever expanding over a
tract of sand and its edges submerged for extensive
distances to different depths at different states of the tide.
Karachi, the business capital of Pakistan, is the capital
city of the Sindh province. It has been referred to as the
“Glory of the East”, “City of Lights”, “Liverpool of India
and Pakistan” (Pithawalla, 1950) and the “Bride of the
cities” (Kazmi et al., 2008). The metropolitan area along
with its suburbs spreads over 3530 sqkm, having an estimated population of 18 million (CDGK, 2007). In
future, it could be the second largest city of the world
(Butler, 2005), because it is expecting to accommodate
27.5 million people in 2020 (CDGK-MPGO, 2007). It rose
to be the first airport and the third seaport of the
undivided India within a brief period of 100 years, having
been formerly established by Sir Charles Napier in 1843
(Pithawala et al., 1946). As a major revenue generator,
Karachi contributes substantially to the national
exchequer and the provincial revenues. Karachi, with its
enormous potential to serve the country, is now emerging
as a globalized complex in competition with other
regional centers of similar order. Numerous studies have
been conducted by several local researchers, but presented with specified objective approach. It is worth saying
that this city needs scientific studies based on strong
socio-ecological principles and transdisciplinary approach
to fulfil the need of ecosystem balance in the region.
The objective of the paper is to outline the state of
ecological and social settings of the city that could help to
alleviate the understanding of the environmental
challenges faced by this colossal ecosystem. The
ultimate objective is to highlight Karachi as an
unexploited opportunity of urbanism research which
needs a pluralistic socio-ecological framework to handle
the challenges of unprecedented urban growth. The
paper is structured in a form where it gives a glimpse of
its historical development, the physical and geo-strategic
location and demographic lineaments. It helped to
develop a synopsis of the socio-economic trend and the
infrastructural development of the city besides the
challenges faced by the physical environment as an
offshoot land-use changes. The paper concludes on
remarks made on the prognosis of the challenges faced
by the city and scientific researchers.

BRIEF HISTORY
A glance at the literature suggests that Karachi was setup
in 1728 - 29 by Hindu fishermen and merchants at the
northern coast of the Arabian Sea (GOP, 1981). A
historical account on Karachi has been reported by
Hasan (1999) starting from the year 1728, though (Khan,
1979) factually claims it as a city existing from Neolithic
age and pre-historic times. Former names of the city had
been ‘Kalachi Jo Goth

or ‘Kalachi Jo Kuh’, which later
became ‘Kalachi’ (sometimes referred to as Kolachi) until
the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1839, the British
Army occupied Karachi and its strategic importance was
immediately identified as it became the first airport of the
undivided India (subcontinent) in 1843 and an important
administrative seat for the British Empire. The British
developed the irrigation system in the whole province
during these years. Later in 1870, it was connected to
Punjab with the railway link for mobilizing agricultural
products to the port and within the country. So, these
three main factors such as: irrigation system, railway link

along with air and sea ports became the reasons for the
development of Karachi as the main attraction for the
people around. In 1869, Karachi became the largest
exporter of wheat and cotton to Indian territories (Hasan
and Mohib, 2003). During the first and second world
wars, Karachi played an important role for the landing
troops and munitions of the British and also as
cantonments.
In 1947, the independence year of Pakistan, Karachi
became the first capital of the newly founded Pakistan
(West). From independence till 1951, migrants kept
coming and started settling into squatter settlements.
Within a span of four years, more than 600,000 refugees
moved-in from India and as a result, Karachi became an
ecumenical of cultures. During 1958, it was decided that
the capital should be shifted to Islamabad, but Karachi
remained the capital of Sindh province. Islamabad started
and completed functioning as capital from 1961, though
Karachi never loses its industrial, business and financial
capital character. Predominant urban growth was mainly
because of the migrants and refugees. In 1971, a huge
number of refugees migrated from East Pakistan (current
Bangladesh) and similarly in the 80s from Afghanistan.
Census in 1981 revealed a total of 1.72 million refugees
in Karachi with more than 2.15 million in 1998 (Hasan
and Mohib, 2003; GOP, 2000). Most of these migrants
are settled in the squatter settlements, which is itself a
challenge for the authorities.
Geographical settings
Location and administrative structure
Karachi, as a recently reformed district, lays
geographically in between 24°45’ N to 25°37’ N and 66°
42’ E to 67° 34’ E. It is situated 80 miles due west of
Indus river mouth. It is surrounded by the Dadu District in
the North and Northeast and the Thatta District in the
East, while in the South and Southwest by the Arabian
Sea and in the Northwest by the Lasbela District
(Balochistan province). Undoubtfully, it is one of the most
favourable geo-strategic situations, as a centre of three
great continents, Europe, Africa and Asia (Figure 1). Until
2001, Karachi was considered as ‘division’ and
comprises five administrative districts such as: Karachi
East, Karachi West, Karachi South, Karachi Central and
Malir (Figure 1). From August 2001, it has been
subdivided into 18 towns, each having Union Councils
(UC) as further subdivision. Karachi has total 178 UCs,
having population around 55 to 65 thousand people each.
It was promulgated by the federal government under
Sindh Local Government Ordinance - 2001 (NRB-GOP,
2001) and has provided unprecedented opportunity to the
City District Government Karachi (CDGK) to steer and
guide the growth of the country’s commercial and
business capital more independently. As such, the

organizational structure of the CDGK is quite detailed and
complex (Figure 2).
Physiography and climate
Physiographically, Karachi can be divided into two broad
categories: the hilly areas in the north and west and an
undulating plain and coastal area in the south-east
(Figure 3a). The north-western hilly portion is covered by
the Kirthar Range, which lies north-and-south and is
connected with the Pabb Range, which extends
northward and is parallel to the Kirthar Range. Most of
the hills range from 400 to 800 feet in height. From
Southeast of the city to the North, there is another series
of low hills, which is extending north-westward. These
hills are 96 to 200 feet high. Three major rivers such as:
Malir, Layari and Hub, flow through Karachi which marks
the physical characteristics of the city. The Malir flows in
the east of Karachi, the Layari flows through the heart of
the city and the Hub lies 30 km to the west and flows
along Karachi Lasbela boundary. South of the city is
connected with Arabian sea, whereas the east-south-east
lies in a vast expanse of mud-flats, sandbanks and
mangrove swamps, intersected by a complicated system
of ramifying creeks and inlets (Pithawala et al., 1946).
Karachi can formally be considered as a region with
temperate climatic conditions with generally high humidity
that intensifies the conditions for the dwellers, in which
the relative humidity varies from 58% in December (the
driest month) to 85% in August (the wettest month).
Karachi endures a long hot season from March to
October and in July and August, temperatures are
moderate because of monsoon winds. The winds in
Karachi for more than half the year, including the
monsoons, blow south-west to west, while the wind in
winter changes to east and north-east. Average wind
velocity in winter is 6.5 miles per h which in overall, is
considered as low wind. Rainfall in Karachi is meagre as
well as quite variable. Its geographical location is not
favourable to receive even sufficient seasonal monsoonal
rainfall. Average rainfall is less than 200 mm. Maximum is
received in July and August, but is irregular. During
recent years, a certain change in the rainfall has been
observed with an average of over 250 mm and it may rain
heavily within a short span of 48 years. There are some
local disturbances due to conventional currents and
contrasts of weather conditions, such as high
temperatures, diurnal ranges and differences in humidity,
which cause thunderstorms, dust storms and squally
weather during the transition stage between the two seasons, such as March to May and September to November
(Pithawala et al., 1946; Arsalan, 2002) (Figure 3b).
URBANIZATION AND DEMOGRAPHIC PROGNOSIS
It is a cosmopolitan city, inhabited by people with culturally





Ecological disturbances due to high cutback in the green infrastructure of Karachi:







Ecological disturbances due to high cutback in the green infrastructure of Karachi: Analyses of public perception about associated health problems
Salman QureshiabCorresponding Author Contact InformationE-mail The Corresponding AuthorE-mail The Corresponding Author, Syed Jamil Hasan Kazmib and Jürgen H. Breustea
a Department of Geography and Geology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstrasse 34, Salzburg 5020, Austria
b Department of Geography, University of Karachi, University Road, Karachi 75270, Pakistan

Available online 24 September 2009. 

Abstract

This paper evaluates the changes to the green infrastructure of the megacity of Karachi, Pakistan, occurring during a period of rapid development, involving extensive loss of trees and green spaces since 2000, occurring as a consequence of road widening and improvements to the city's transport infrastructure, aggravated by a series of cyclones, involving further tree loss and which has led to numerous ecological problems in the city, assessing how the effect of the reduction of Karachi's green infrastructure has impacted both the reality and the perception of human health conditions. It uses medium-resolution satellite images classified for land use and land cover (LULC) data extraction and detailed field surveys to map the extent of change; structured questionnaires are used to identify the perception of selected, targeted groups regarding the state of Karachi's urban green infrastructure and perceived human health conditions. Findings indicate that the public perception of green space functionality or presence does not equate with the remote sensing and field mapping results, which show a dramatic loss. The need to develop a comprehensive urban greening strategy, which considers the needs and priorities of the population, is identified. The impact of such a strategy in terms of increased frequency of visits to green sites and associated increase in the physical activity of the people to improve overall physical health is discussed in relation to the general development of Karachi.
Keywords: Environmental psychologists; Health perception; Nature perception; Urban ecology; Urban forest; Urban green

Article Outline

Introduction
Study area and problem
Methodology
Remote sensing and GPS survey
Selection of research sites
Site 1 – Bagh-e-Ibne Qasim and Beach view Park
Site 2 – Askari Park
Site 3 – Karachi Zoological Garden (Gandhi Garden)
Health analysis
Structure and implementation strategy of survey
Results and discussion
Changes in green infrastructures (remote-sensing results)
Public perception about green infrastructure and health (survey results)
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References

Together for more sustainable urban ecosystems


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vegetation on different sites to determine the community structure and how the communities were related based on their species composition


http://www.bioline.org.br/pdf?ja08049



* Corresponding author: Muhammad Zafar Iqbal
JASEM ISSN 1119-8362
All rights reserved
J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage. September, 2008
Vol. 12(3) 51 - 60
Full-text Available Online at
 www.bioline.org.br/ja

Ecological surveys of certain plant communities around urban areas of Karachi

MUHAMMAD, ZAFAR IQBAL; SHAH, S. Z.; SHAFIQ, M.
Department of Botany, University of Karachi,Karachi- 75270, Pakistan
Email Add: shafiqeco@yahoo.com. shafiq_ecopk@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT:  A phytosociological study was conducted as an initial assessment of the vegetation on different
sites to determine the community structure and how the communities were related based on their species composition
and edaphic characteristics. The communities were distinct types ranging from halophytes to xerophytes with
disturbed in nature. Plant communities based on first leading dominant species (Prosopis, Avicennia, Gynandropis,
Salvadora, Ipomea, Halopyrum, Limonium, Abutilon and Calotropis) were explored in the study area. Out of thirtynine plant species, Prosopis juliflora attained the highest total importance value index (I.V.I.) followed by Avicennia
marina, Suaeda fruticosa and Gynandropsis gynandra. Nine species attained first leading position. Thirteen species
attained second dominant position. However, twelve species attained third dominant position in all stands. P. juliflora
was the only species that was found six times as a  first dominant, three times as second and one time  as a third
dominates species. None of the other species was in a position to get first, second and third position as a leading
dominant in all stands. The communities were of heterogeneous type, with low species diversity and ranged from
1.36 to 4.54. Most of the plant communities showed less than 50% CMI values. However, Prosopis in association
with  Pasplidium and  Cenchrus  community showed highest CMI value (70.00). The soils of the  study areas were
sandy loam, loamy sand, loamy silt, sandy and silty. The soils are alkaline in nature. An appreciable  amount of
calcium carbonate (13-26%) with moderate percentage of maximum water holding capacity (19-41%) and high soil
EC (593 s/cmµ) were recorded. It was also observed that certain edaphic and human activity, discharge of pollutants
with out any pretreatment was found responsible for variation in the nature, structure and composition of vegetation.
The plant growth and their continuity was in danger in many disturb areas, especially in some coastal areas where
salinity and the incident of Tasman spirit oil spillage was occurred just few months before the survey carried out.
Construction of flyover, expansion of the roads and cut down of the natural vegetation producing additional losses to
flora of the region. @ JASEM
The ecological surveys are necessary for an
adequate characterization of a plant community.
Disturbed areas considered those, where the
integrity of the natural setting and natural system
processes has been directly or indirectly affected by
human activities. These activities could be for
resource extraction, visitor use, development of
maintenance, or invasion of nonnative sp. etc. The
vegetation in the disturbed areas does not reflect a
naturally evolved species composition, but rather a
mixture of small remnant patches dominated by
native plants patches of largely invasive weedy
alien plants, and areas of mixed native and non
native plants. All over the world, natural habitats
are being degraded. There is evidence of
contamination in the most remote parts of the
world. The human population is getting larger,
spreading and producing more complex and
interactive disturbance on plant communities.
There are few undisturbed habitats are left in some
most part of the world. Nevertheless, there is also a
general desire to maintain natural habitat for our
enjoyment and for the continue well-being of
nature. Plant ecologist have placed increasing
emphasis on a gunctional understanding of
vegetation (Lehsten and Kleyer, 2007). The
response of plant communities to environmental
change is often studied by analysing the
composition of plant traits across communities.  A
lot of work has been done in ordinating the
tropical, temperate, deciduous, desert and
calcareous types of vegetation, whereas littler work
has been reported from disturbed vegetation. The
ecological survey of such disturbed areas
conducted by few researchers, in order to know the
damage done to ecology of the area and also to
know the diversity and dispersion status of species
in the area.  In Pakistan some phytosociological
studies on plant communities of different areas
have been conducted (Akbar and Ahmed, 1991;
Dasti and Agnew 1994; Iqbal, 1998). Arshad, et al.,
(2002) carried out a phytosociological assessment
of natural reserve of national park Lalsuhanra and
identified three distinct types of plant communities.
Ahmed and Khattak, (2001) in quantitative studies
on the vegetation of Islamabad concluded that due
to large scale artificial addition the original
vegetation is vanishing at certain places.
Khan  et al., (1999) have described structure,
composition and above ground standing phytomass
for the summer aspect of some grass dominated
communities of Karachi. In another studies, Khan
and Shaukat (2005) have described above ground
standing phytomass of some grass-dominated
communities of Karachi for winter aspect. In past,
few ecological studies have been made on the plant
communities of different areas of Karachi (Shafiq,
et al., 1992, Khan, 1993, Iqbal and Hussain, 1994;
Iqbal and Shafiq, 1996, Iqbal,  et al., 1998; Khan
and Shaukat, 2005).  Karachi is the biggest city of
Pakistan. The city has more than 12 million
population and ranked the 10
th
 amongst the biggest
cities of the world. Increasing population pressure,
expansion in industrial and residential areas,
construction of roads, flyovers and invasion of
nonnative species activities affected nature,
structure and composition of the plant
communities. Almost each and every area of the
Karachi can be presented as the classical example
of disturbance and pollution impact on plant Ecological surveys of certain plant communities around urban areas of Karachi
* Corresponding author: Muhammad Zafar Iqbal
52
communities. The city atmosphere is being affected
badly by almost every type of environmental
pollution. The natural vegetation of the region is
either being replace by invasive species or is being
removed by man for the construction of roads,
flyover, building and industries. Dumping of
domestic and industrial trash in Malir, Lyari and
Hub rivers is also a common practice in the city,
which has also affected the indigenous
biodiversities of these wetlands.  The aim of
present investigation was to provide quantitative
description of the vegetation on the disturbed areas
of the Karachi city, which is changing from natural
to semi-natural form due to anthropogenic
disturbances, which are still in progress.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A: Description of the area
The bioclimate of Karachi in the Holdridg’s system
falls in the category of “Tropical Bush Formation”.
The rainfall is irregular and average below 200 mm
a year mostly in summer. The winter peak of
precipitation is very low. Winter is the driest part
of the year. Summer, which is very hot, the winter
in this part of world is mild. Mean monthly
minimum temperature for the month of January
remains around 10°C-12.5°C due to the Siberian
winds. The insulation is intense with global solar
radiation varying from 3580 Kcal.m
-2
 day
-1
 for
December to 5609 Kcal M
-2
 day
-1
 for May. The
diffused radiation is 20-30% of the global radiation
(Ahmed  et al., 1991) Rain in Karachi is seasonal,
averaging less than 22 cm per year between June
and September and rare for the remainder of the
year. Occasionally, there are dry years too while
strong coastal winds and better dew formation is
the characteristic feature of Karachi.
B: Vegetational survey
A phytosociological survey of different habitats of
Karachi was carried out in the months from July to
October 2003 (Fig. 1).  The study area is comprised
of more than 30 square kilometer. Areas were
sampled by Point centered quarter methods
(Cottom and Curtis, 1956). Twenty sampling points
were established at each venue with regular interval
by spacing ten steps. Relative cover, relative
frequency, and relative density were obtained. The
importance value index (I.V.I.) for each species
was obtained by addition of the above community
attributes (Curtis and McIntosh, 1951). The
community was named according to dominant
species, which have highest I.V.I. Homogeneity of
community was determined by Raunkiaers Law of
frequency (1934). Community maturity index was
found by Pichi-Sermoli (1948) and species
diversity index was determined by the following
formulae of Simpson index.
D = N (N-1) / Σ n (n-1)
D = Diversity index
N = Total number of plants of a species
n = number of individuals  
Σ = Sum of all individuals of a species.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
SITES

Diversity Index Value
Fig. 1. Species diversity index
SAMPLING SITE: 1=Near hawksbay; 2= Manora; 3=Karachi University Stop; 4=Saeedabad Baldia Town;5= Peoples’s ground; 6=
ManoraGraved;7= Malir river at Korangi crossing; 8= Malir river around Malir river;9= Mikolachi Road;10= Korangi No.5 Shahra -e-
Uloom;11= Mikolachi road;12= Hawksbay;13= Gaboput Kamri; 14= Bahraria complex II;15=March Morr Ecological surveys of certain plant communities around urban areas of Karachi
* Corresponding author: Muhammad Zafar Iqbal
53
Fig 1. MAP OF THE SAMPLING SITE: 1=Near hawksbay; 2=
Manora; 3=Karachi University Stop; 4=Saeedabad Baldia
Town;5= Peoples’s ground; 6= ManoraGraved;7= Malir river at
Korangi crossing; 8= Malir river around Malir river;9=
Mikolachi Road;10= Korangi No.5 Shahra -e- Uloom;11=
Mikolachi road;12= Hawksbay;13= Gaboput Kamri; 14=
Bahraria complex II;15=March Morr
C: Soil analysis
One composite soil sample from each stand was
also taken with the help of soil corer. The samples
were brought to the laboratory in polythene bags
for physical and chemical analysis. Soil texture was
determined by manual as well as mechanical
(sieving) methods. Soil structure was observed by
hand lens observatory methods. Maximum water
holding capacity (M.W.H.C.) of the soil was
calculated by the following formulae.  M.W.H.C.
(%) = Loss in weight/oven dried weight of soil X
100.
The soil pH was determined by direct pH reading
meter (Model JENWAY PHM 6). Calcium
carbonate was determined by acid neutralization
method (Qadir et al., 1961). Electrical conductivity
(E.C.) of the soil samples was determined by
digital conductivity meter (Beckman’s conductivity
meter). Sodium contents of the soil were
determined by silver titration method (U.S.D.A.,
1951).
RESULTS
The vegetation of studied areas showed the
presence of halophytes, xerophytes and disturbed
type of vegetation. A summary of
phytosociological data is summarized in (Table 1).
Among all the listed thirty nine plant species,
Prosopis  juliflora  was found leading dominant in
most of the stands. The stands dominated by
Prosopis, formed an association with halophytes
(H. recurvum, T. indica, C. cretica) and xerophyte
(C. procera, S. oleoides, F. indica, P. aceolata)
species.  Avicennia marina as a leading dominant
formed an association with halophytes (C. cretica,
S. baryosma. S. fruticosa) and showed complete
absence of disturbed species (P. juliflora, A.
javanica, S. holoseracea, A. indicum, F. indica, S.
ovata). Whereas,  Abutilon  and Calotropis procera
as a leading dominant showed complete absence of
other halophytes. Salvadora  formed an association
with disturbed species P. juliflora, and halophyte S.
fruticosa. The stands, dominated by  Limonium
stocksii  showed an association with both disturbed
(P. juliflora) and grass species (Aleuropus). The
stand dominated by Gynandropsis did not form any
association with halophytes and formed an
association with disturbed (P. juliflora) and
xerophytic species (T. terristris).
Homogeneity of Communities: The frequency
distribution of all communities showed
heterogeneous types of vegetation, which is in
accordance with the Raunkiers law of frequency.
Absence of certain classes in frequency distribution
of all communities makes heterogeneous types of
vegetation.
Community Maturity Index (C.M.I.): This index
is an important indicator for the maturity of the
communities (Table 2). Most of the plant
communities showed less than 50% CMI values.
However, Prosopis in association with Pasplidium
and  Cenchrus  community showed highest CMI
value (70.00). Similarly,  Prosopis in association
with  Suaeda and  Tamarix  community showed
higher CMI value (56.25).  Prosopis in association
with  Calotropis and  Cenchrus  showed less than
(50.00) CMI value which proved the immaturity of
vegetation  (Table 3).  Avicinnea  community had
lowest CMI values (10.00).  Ipomea and Avicinnea
in association with Cressa-Salsola had better CMI
45.83 and 40.00 values, respectively. Gynandropis,
Limonium and Salvadora had CMI less than 40. A
better CMI value 32.11 and 26.25 was found in
Calotropis and Abutilon community.
Species diversity: The species diversity index
(Simpson’s index) is another important value for
the community studies. Higher species diversity
value is a characteristic of stable communities. The
species diversity of the studied communities was
generally low and ranged from 1.36 to 4.54  (Fig.
1). The highest species diversity (4.54) was
observed in  Prosopis  community. The  Avicenea
and Ipomea sp  community had better species
diversity (4.01) while, the lowest species diversity
(1.36) was observed in Gynandropsis community.  Ecological surveys of certain plant communities around urban areas of Karachi
* Corresponding author: Muhammad Zafar Iqbal
54
Table 1: Phytosociological summary of the community attributes
Sp. No Species name No of
times sp.
occurred
in stand
Importance Value Index
(I.V.I.)
No of stands
dominant
   Total
IVI
Ave.
IVI
Max.
IVI
Min.
IVI
1st 2nd 3rd
1.  Prosopis juliflora Swartz 12 1280 107 198 27 6 3 1
2.  Avicennia marina   2 335 167 208 127 2 - -
3.  Suaeda  fruticosa (L.) Forssk.  7 270 39 74 13 - 1 3
4.  Gynandropis gynandra (L) Briq. 1 170 170 170 170 1 - -
5.  Salvadora persica L.  2 153 76 144 9 1 - 1
6.  Cenchrus barbatus Schum 4 131 33 84 8 - - 2
7.  Ipomoea sindica (Stocks) Stapf 2 129 64 121 8 1 - -
8.  Halopyrum mucronatum (L.) Stapf  1 106 106 106 106 1 1 1
9  Convolvululs glomerates Choisy 3 104 34 80 80 - 1 1
10.  Limonium stocksii (Boiss) O. Ktze 1 103 103 103 103 1 - -
11.  Salsola brayosma (R. & S.) Dandy 5 101 20 40 7 - - 1
12.  Cressa cretica L.  3 96 32 48 15 - 2 1
13.  Senna holosericea (Freson.) Greuter 3 77 25 32 21 - - 1
14.  Calotropis procera (Willd.) R.Br. 3 76 25 37 4 1 1 -
15.  Heliotropium subulatum (D.C.) Vatke 2 72 36 58 13 - - -
16.  Cenchrus biflorus Roxb. 2 56 28 41 15 -  -
17.  Pasppalidium geminatum (Forsk) Stapf 1 54 54 54 54 - 1 -
18.  Tribulus terristris L.  1 51 51 51 51 - 1 -
19.  Aeluropus  macrostachyus Hack.  2 50 25 36 14 - - 1
20.  Zizyphus numularia (Buurn. f.) Wight &
Arn.
3 38 13 21 9 - - -
21.  Aeluropus lagopoides (L) Trin.ex. Thw 1 37 37 37 37 - - -
22.  Fagonia indica (L.) 2 35 17 19 6 - 1 -
23.  Sida ovata  Forrsk. 1 35 35 35 35 - - 1
24.  Urochondra setulosa (Trin.) C.E. Hubb 1 25 25 25 25 - - -
25.  Abutilon indicum  L. Sweet 1 126 126 126 126 1 - -
26.  Arthrocenemum macrostachyum   1 32 32 32 32 -  -
27.  Atriplex stocksi  Boiss 1 21 21 21 21 - - -
28.  Indigofera oblongifolia Forsrsk. 1 19 19 19 19 - - -
29.  Dichanthium annulatum (Forrsk.) Stapf 2 19 9 10 9 - - -
30.  Eragrostis  pilosa ( L.) Beauv.  1 17 17 17 17 - - -
31.  Zygophyllum simplex L. 2 16 8 8 8 - - -
32.  Cenchrus setigerus Vahl 1 15 15 15 15 - 1 -
33.  Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Merrill 1 32 32 32 32 - 1 1
34.  Parkinsonia aculeate L.   1 75 75 75 75 - 1 -
35.  Heliotropium curassavicum L.   1 9 9 9 9 - - -
36.  Sporobolus  marginatus non Hoehst  1 9 9 9 9 - - -
37.  Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Delile 1 8 8 8 8 - - -
38.  Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. 1 6 6 6 6 - - -
39.  Tamarix indica  Willd. 1 6 6 6 6 - - 1
The disturbance: The disturbances were of
various type and degree on the study sites (Table
2). One thing was common that the disturbance was
a mean to reduce species diversity and to reduce
plant growth. The phenology of the plants on
disturbed areas was not good although they had
received a good shower in the monsoon season
couple of months back.
Soil Characteristics: The soil of the study area
was alkaline in nature with loamy sand, sandy
loam, loamy silt and silty having a considerable
amount of calcium carbonate, which is a
characteristic feature for arid soil. Eight stands
were found on loamy sand and three on loamy silt
while two on silty and two on sandy loam (Table
3). Fifteen plant communities were identified.
Propsopis community formed six different types of
association (Prosopis-Paspilidium-Cenchrus,
Prosopis-Calotropis-Salvadora, ProsopisCenchrus-Cressa, Prosopis-suaedea-Tamarix,
Prosopis-Parkinsonia-Halopyrum  and ProsopisFagonia-Cenchrus) times leading first dominant
species.  Similarly, Avicenia  community formed
two types of community as  Avicenia-CressaSuaeda and  Avicenia-Cressa-Salsola respectively.
Therefore, these communities were explored as
(Prosopis, Avicennia, Gynandropsis, Salvadora,
Ipomea, Halopyrum, Limonium, Abutilon,  and
Calotropis) community and their edaphic
characters are explained as follows:  Ecological surveys of certain plant communities around urban areas of Karachi
* Corresponding author: Muhammad Zafar Iqbal
55
Table2: Community Maturity Index (C.M.I.), study site, nature of disturbance and total number of species in stand
 
Table 3.  Soil characteristics of different disturbed habitats
Plant community  Soil Characteristics
Soil
texture
Soil
structure
Sand
 %
Silt
 %
Clay
 %
MWHC
 %
pH CaCO3
 %
EC
µs/cm
Na
ppm
Halopyrum-ConvolvolusSuaeda
SL-LS RP  81 12 4 23 7.54 13 242 146
Avicenia-Cressa-Suaeda  LS-SL RP 84 10 5 19 7.56 21 473 285
Ipomea-HalopyrumConvolvolus
SL-LS RP 82 11 4 22 7.53 13 242 145
Gynandropsis-TribulusProsopis
LST RNP 17 58 24 41 7.85 26 593 357
Limonium-Prosopis-Aleuropus  LST RNP 9 57 31 45 7.85 26 593 357
Prosopis-PaspalidiumCenchurs
LST RNP 5 58 37 48 7.85 23 590 355
Avicenia-Cressa-Salsola  ST RNP 4 90 5 40 7.86 21 473 285
Salvadora-Prosopis-Suaeda  ST RNP 5 88 6 39 7.85 22 593 357
Prosopis-Calotropis-Salvadora  LS, S AB 87 8 4 19 7.20 14 242 145
Prosopis-Cenchrus-Cressa  LS, S AB 87 8 4 19 7.10 14 241 145
Prosopis-Suaeda-Tamarix  LS, S RP 85 10 4 19 7.85 26 593 357
Prosopis-ParkinsoniaHaloxylon
LS, S RP 87 8 4 19 7.35 26 593 357
Prosopis-Fagonia-Cenchrus  LS, S RP 87 8 4 19 7.45 16 323 195
Calotropis-Aerva-Senna  LS RAB 83 13 5 19 7.42 16 399 240
Abutilon-Prosopis-Sida  LS-S RAB 87 8 4 19 7.45 16 333 201
Symbol Used:
SL=Sandy loam, LS=Loamy sand, LST=Loamy silt, S=Sandy, ST=Silty, RP=Rounded (porous), RNP= Rounded (non porous),  AB=
Angular blocky, RAB= Rounded+Angular blocky, MWHC= Maximum water holding capacity of soil , EC= Electrical Conductivity of
soil
Prosopis community: Prosopis community formed
six different types of association with halophytic
and xerophytic species such as  H. recurvum, C.
cretica, S. fruticosa  and  T. indica. The soil
characteristics of  Prosopis  community showed
variation in the nutritional value of soil
characteristics. This community in association with
C. procera, S. persica, C. barbata, C. cretica, S.
fruticosa, T. indica, P. aceolata, H. mucronatum
and F. indica preferred to grow on high percentage
of sand (85-87%) and low amount of silt (8-10%)
and clay (4%) particles. The community had low
percentage of maximum water holding capacity
(19%). Whereas,  Prosopis community in
association with  P. gyminatum  and  C. setigerus
preferred to grow on highest percentage of silt
(58%) and Maximum Water Holding Capacity
(48%). The soil of the community had better
calcium carbonate (23%) with alkaline soil pH
(7.10-7.85). The concentrations of sodium content
were found in the range of 145-357 ppm. The
community preferred electrical conductivity (EC)
in the range of 241-593 µs/cm.  
Stand
No.
Plant Community Study site Disturbance CMI Total No
of species
in stands
1  Halopyrum-Convolvolus-Suaeda  Manora Graved Naval activities 50 8
2  Avicenia-Cressa-Suaeda  Manora Construction of road 10 6
3  Ipomea-Halopyrum-Convolvolus  Gaboput Kamri Salinity, polluted sea water 46 6
4  Gynandropsis-Tribulus-Prosopis  Near hawksbay Salinity 31 5
5  Limonium-Prosopis-Aleuropus  Hawksbay Salinity 38 8
6  Prosopis-Paspalidium-Cenchurs  Malir river around
Malir river
Water, air pollution 70 4
7  Avicenia-Cressa-Salsola  Malir river at Korangi
crossing
Traffic, air and water
pollution
40 8
8  Salvadora-Prosopis-Suaeda  Mikolachi road Tasman strip 38 6
9  Prosopis-Calotropis-Salvadora  March Morr Lyari express way 39 6
10  Prosopis-Cenchrus-Cressa  Peoples’s ground Traffic, air and dust
pollution
35 6
11  Prosopis-Suaeda-Tamarix  Mikolachi Road Tasman strip spill 56 4
12  Prosopis-Parkinsonia-Haloxylon  Bahraria complex II Construction 35 7
13  Prosopis-Fagonia-Cenchrus  Saeedabad Baldia Town Houses,road construction 20 9
14  Calotropis-Aerva-Senna  Karachi University Stop Plaza construction 32 7
15  Abutilon-Prosopis-Sida  Korangi No.5 Shahra
 -e- Uloom
Grazing, polluted water 26 8
Symbol used: CMI (Community Maturity Index) Ecological surveys of certain plant communities around urban areas of Karachi
* Corresponding author: Muhammad Zafar Iqbal
56
Avicenia community: This community is
dominated by halophytes.  The community formed
an association with other halophytes C. cretica, S.
fruticosa  and  C. certica. The community in
association with  C. cretica and S. fruticosa
preferred to grow on high percentage of total sand
(84%) along with better percentage of silt (10%),
clay particles (5%) and low MWHC (19%). This
community prefers to grow on sandy loam to
loamy sand soil type. The soil of the community
had slightly alkaline pH (7.56) with high sodium
content (285 ppm) and electrical conductivity (473
µs/cm). While the same community in association
with C. cretica and S. baryosma preferred to grow
on highest percentage of silt (90%) along with low
percentage of silt (4%), clay particles (5%). The
community prefers to grow on better MWHC
(40%). The soil of the community had highest
alkaline pH (7.86).
Gynandropsis  community: Gynandropsis  formed
an association with  T. terristris and disturbed
species,  P. juliflora. This community prefers to
grow on loamy silt soil type. The community had
better percentage of total sand (17%), silt (58%)
and clay particles (24%). The maximum water
holding capacity of the soil was 41% and soil was
loamy silt. The soil pH (7.85) and Na
+
 (357 ppm)
contents were moderate in the community. The
dominance of the community might be due to the
highest EC (593  µs/cm), EC (0.59 ds/m and
calcium carbonate (26%).
 Salvadora  community: S. persica formed an
association with both disturbed species, P. juliflora
and halophytes S. fruticosa. It appeared to grow at
the low percentage of total sand (5%), clay (6%),
high percentage of silt (88%) and better water
holding capacity (39%). This community prefers to
grow on silty types of soil. The community was
found to grow on high percentage of calcium
carbonate (22%) as compared to other plant
communities. The community had slightly alkaline
soil pH (7.85), EC 593 µs/cm and sodium level,
and 357 ppm.
Ipomea community: Ipomea  community formed
main association with halophytes (H. mucronatum)
and creeping  C. conglomerates. The soil of the
community had a high percentage of total sand
(82%) with better percentage of silt (11%) and clay
(4%) particles. The soil was sandy loam and loamy
sand with slightly alkaline pH (7.53). The
community showed moderate concentration of
calcium carbonate (13%), Na
+
 salt (242 ppm) and
EC 242 µs/cm, respectively.
Halopyrum  community:  Halopyrum  community
formed main association with halophytes  S.
fruticosa and creeping plant species  C.
conglomerates. The community was found on soil
having high percentage of total sand (81%) with
lowest percentage of clay particles (4%). However,
the amount of silt was moderate (12%). This
community prefers to grow on sandy loam to
loamy sand. The community prefers to grow on
better water holding capacity of soil (23%). Lowest
percentage of calcium carbonate (13%) was
observed in this community. Other soil
characteristics of community such as EC, Na, K
and pH were low.
Limonium community:  Limonium  community
formed main association with disturbed species P.
juliflora and grass  A. lagopoides.  Species  C.
conglomerates. The community was found on soil
having low percentage of total sand (9%) with high
percentage of clay particles (31%). However, the
amount of silt was moderate (57%). However, the
water holding capacity of community soil was
moderate (45%). This community prefers to grow
on loamy silt soil type.  The community had high
calcium carbonate (26%). The other soil
characteristics such as pH (7.85), EC (593  µs/cm)
and Na (357 ppm) were high.
Abutilon community:  Abutilon community formed
main association with disturbed species P. juliflora
and xerophytes  S. ovata. The community was
found on soil having high percentage of total sand
(83%) with better percentage of clay (5%) and silt
particles (13%) and prefers to grow on sandy to
loamy sand types of soil. The community had the
low water holding capacity of soil (19%) along
with better amount of calcium carbonate (16%).
The other soil characteristics such as pH (7.42), EC
(399 µs/cm) and Na (240 ppm) were moderate.
Calotropis community:  Calotropis  community
formed main association with xerophytes species
likewise  A. javanica  and  S. holosericea. This
community preferred to grow on loamy sand soil
type. The community was found on soil having
high percentage of total sand (87%) with lowest
percentage of silt and clay particles (4%). The
community had the lowest water holding capacity
(19%). The other soil characteristics such as pH
(7.45), EC (333  µs/cm) and Na (201 ppm) were
moderate.
DISCUSSION
In order to assess ecological knowledge of the
native flora in southern site of Pakistan, a
quantitative phytosociological study in different
areas of the city was carried out. Importance value
index (I.V.I.) for each plant species was determined
to quantify the importance of each species. The
vegetation of the studied sites is composed of
halophytic, xerophytic and disturbed species. The
disturbance is mainly due to the construction of
roads, flyover, salinity, discharge of pollutant on
soil surface without any pretreatment and animal
grazing. These activities are responsible in Ecological surveys of certain plant communities around urban areas of Karachi
* Corresponding author: Muhammad Zafar Iqbal
57
converting natural vegetation to semi natural
vegetation. An important component of any
ecosystem is the species it contains. Species also
serves as good indicators of the ecological
condition of a system (Morgenthal, et al., 2001). A
list of all species collected during the study was
compiled. The floristic composition of different
area was also compared. The species composition
of the fifteen stands was considerably different.
Halophytes were, for example, more abundant on
the soil having high salt content in the area.
Vegetation analysis gives the information
necessary to determine the name of community and
provide data that can be used to compare it with
other communities. Nine plant communities;
Prosopis, Avicennia, Suaeda, Gynandropsis,
Salvadora, Ipomea, Limonium, Calotropis  and
Abutilon were observed as a leading dominant. The
leading dominants of one stands was also found in
other stands as co-dominant. The communities in
the study area were heterogeneous. The absence of
certain frequencies classes in the communities
reflected the heterogeneity of the vegetation, which
is either due to biotic disturbance or the floral
poverty. The result obtained by Raunkiaer (1954)
may be regarded only as possibilities to be
confirmed by other alternative approaches.
The concept of species diversity relates simply to
“richness” of a community or geographical area in
species. At the simplest level of examination,
species diversity corresponds to the number of
species present.    Species diversity is considered to
be an important attribute of community
organization and allowed comparison of the
structural characteristics of the communities. It is
often related to community dynamics stability,
productivity, integration, evolution, structure and
competition.  The idea of displacement of one
species through competition with other is net prime
importance. The species diversity was low and the
community maturity index was below 50%, which
indicates that the communities are under several
changes except stands dominated by  ProsopisPaspalidium-Cenchrus  and  Prosopis-SuaedaTamarix  community. This might be due to
occurrences of lowest number of plant species
present in stand and variation in edaphic
characteristics of community. Furthermore,
variation in plant growth due to changes in edaphic
and climatic conditions in  S. fruticosa (L.) and
Tamarix indica Willd  from the saline community
of Karachi University Campus was investigated
(Maryam,  et al., 1995). The halophytes besides
having sand binding and salt absorption properties
also have a great economic importance for use as a
forage, fodder, oil crops, pulp, paper industry and
fuel wood (Malcolm, 1993). High percentage of silt
(58%), clay (37%), and maximum water holding
capacity of soil (48%) in  Prosopis-PaspalidiumChencrus  community might be reason of such
change. The findings are similar to the
investigation of Matthews,  et al., (2001). In
hierarchical classification, vegetation map,
description and ecological interpretation of the
plant communities of the Tembe Elephant Park and
surrounding areas dynamics of water in the
landscape either directly or indirectly, through its
role in moisture levels and soil formation play a
role in the determination of plant communities at
the higher levels. Species richness was found to be
highest in associations with high structural
diversity and species turnover was strongest where
environmental heterogeneity was high (Hoare and
Bredenkamp, 2001). A strong dominance by P.
juliflora  is likely to continue within the both
disturbed and halophyte community type.
Establishment by the co-dominant, S. fruticosa
suggests an increasing importance of this species.
However, P. juliflora in association with F. indica
and  C. procera  appears to be particularly adapted
to the xeric condition of soil Similar types of
vegetation around the Lyari river was found and
mostly dominated by monocotyledonous species
viz  Paspalidium geminatum, Cyperus laevigatus,
Chloris barbata and Aeluropus lagopoide.  (Iqbal
et al., 1998). P. geminatum was the most common
and widely distributed species along the waste
effluent in the study areas. Plant growth and
development are the result of many physiological
processes, which are influenced by soil moisture
(Mondal and Paul, 1992; Begum and Paul, 1993).
Distribution of plant communities mostly depends
upon the edaphic factors, like, soil texture,
structure, pH, moisture and mineral composition.
Soil salinity alone of in combination with water
logging play an important role in distribution of
halophytes. Variation in total salinity, depth of soil
horizon and extent of water logging can greatly
influence the vegetation of an area including
halophytes (Maryam,  et al.,1995). Prosopis
community preferred to grow on wide range of
water holding capacity of soil 19-48%, resulting in
the formation of six different types of plant
association.    
Differences in rehabilitation treatment, age of
rehabilitation and man-made disturbances were
observed in some of the important factors
determining the establishment of different
communities, such as on ash disposal sites.
Statistically significant differences were found in
the diversity of vegetation on a community and
variant level (Morgentha,  et al.,2001). One of the
main factors influencing plant distribution is the
type of soil. Most plants are specially adapted to
more or less specific soil types. The distribution
and composition of plant communities is there's
seems to be affected by climatic and underlying
edaphic factors. The soil of the study area was
alkaline in nature with sandy loam, loamy sand,
loamy silt, sandy and silty. An appreciable amount
of calcium carbonate is a common feature of arid
area soil. Soil of the communities showed
significant variation in their characteristics.
However, some communities recognized in the Ecological surveys of certain plant communities around urban areas of Karachi
* Corresponding author: Muhammad Zafar Iqbal
58
study area are also found in other parts of the
country. The construction of flyover, roads,
salinity, indiscriminate discharge of pollutant,
dumping of soil waste and increasing human
activities disturbing the natural vegetation pattern
of the study areas. Similar conclusion was drawn
by Akbar and Ahmed (1991) about the vegetation
of Quaid-e-Azam University campus. Out of 39
species, eighteen species were occurred as a first,
second or third dominant in community. Maximum
numbers of species (9) were found in  ProsopisFagonia-Cenchrus community. The number of
species per site varied with the species dominating
the site and the soil characteristics of the site.
Halophytic communities were composed of lesser
number of species as compared to glycophytes
communities (Khan and Shaukat, 2005). The
natural vegetation of all the three sites in the
reserve areas of Natural Park Lalsuhanra was
mainly herbaceous but in degrading form. Because
of overgrazing, the vegetation cover in unfenced
desert areas was in decreasing state as compared to
protected area (Arshad, et al., 2002). Reduction in
number of species was noted in few stands due to
pollution area as compared to other areas. The
presence of  P. geminatum  as a co dominant
population suggested that this species has tolerance
to pollution condition. In physiological mechanism
of pollution injury, many factors such as light,
wind, water, temperature and mineral nutrient
affects the responses of plants to pollutant.  The
soil characteristics along water channels showed a
significant correlation with vegetation type.  P.
Juliflora had wide ecological amplitude and was
found as a first dominant in different stand with a
range (7.10-7.85) of soil pH. A change in pH
values caused changed in association between
species.  (Iqbal, et al.,1998).
Calcium carbonate is widely distributed in soil
occurring separately or they may be associated with
other salts. Hawksbay area soil has better
concentration of calcium carbonate. High
percentage of calcium carbonate made the
biological activity high, which make the soil fertile.
A variation in calcium carbonate concentration had
also showed relationships with vegetation types. G.
Gynandra formed a dominant community at the
highest concentration of CaCO3.The amount of
exchangeable sodium was found in appreciable
concentration, as in arid area.  Where precipitation
is insufficient to leach out the soluble sodium salts.
A variation of concentration of sodium salts had a
marked influenced on vegetation. At lowest
concentration of sodium 146 ppm,  Halopyrum
community preferred to grow in association with C.
glomeratus and  S. fruticosa.  Halopyrum
community preferred to grow on better edaphic
variable (pH 7.45, CaCO3 16%, and sodium salt
201 ppm) helped in the formation of xerophytic
and disturbed types of vegetation.  
The ecology of different plant communities from
different sites of Karachi, showed variation in
nature, structure, composition of vegetation and
soil characteristic. Most of the species were
halophytes, xerophytes and in disturbed nature. The
majority of individuals of plant population were
seen in danger. Various types of activities have
modified the plant cover over wide areas. There is a
need to develop plant-protected areas. Cultivation
of wild species and grasses will help in soil binding
and maintaining the richness of the nutrient cycle
of the soil. Scientific information relating to the
composition of vegetation can be helpful for proper
rehabilitation of the affected area because this
forms the basic element for the conservation of
important and endangered flora and fauna of any
region.  Protection of the natural flora from over
grazing is necessary, especially during the time
when the desirable plants set their seeds. Protection
is essential to maintain the desirable forage plant
species in a good proportion, to avoid invader plant
species and to rehabilitate the destroyed natural
flora (Arshad, et al., 2002). We must carry out our
efforts to make a list of the plant species, which can
be lost from the natural environment, otherwise it
will leads to desertification. Desertification
associated with human activities has been
recognized over the past 2 decades as one of the
important facets of ongoing global environmental
change (Verstraete and Schwartz, 1991; UNEP,
1997; Huenneke,  et al., 2002)  and  Species loss
can alter the goods and services provided by
ecosystems (Hooper, et al., 2005).
Community structure, on a variant level, is largely
determined by different treatments (seed mixtures
and soil preparations) that were used in the
rehabilitation of the ash disposal sites. Periodical
survey on natural plant communities by comparing
with plant communities of rehabilitated sites, on
dumps of domestic refuse, industrial refuses carried
out. The reconstruction of plant communities on
disturbed sites with a species composition similar
to that of the natural area will require allocation of
more financial inputs. The saving and
establishment of plant communities one of the
major tasks facing by ecologist. Extensive work on
the development of vegetation depends upon good
indigenous vegetation recovery. Preservation of
these communities especially within disturbed sites
is more generally, demands a unique and pressing
conservation challenge. Extinction of some rare
species would result in the increase of the
prevalence of relatively stable species, such as  P.
juliflora. It is concluded that salinity, discharge of
different types of pollutant and various types of are
adversely affecting the nature, structure and
composition of plant communities. Construction of
buildings and roads in the area is additional source
of disturbance. It is suggested that the discharge of
untreated polluted water must be checked.
Plantation near the construction of new structure
and roads should be increased. Plant material and
soil analysis should be carried out periodically, to
monitor the toxic levels of pollutant. Periodical Ecological surveys of certain plant communities around urban areas of Karachi
* Corresponding author: Muhammad Zafar Iqbal
59
ecological survey, knowledge of vegetation and
their relationship with soil characteristic can be
helpful for future development project like
botanical garden. Plant ecological surveys of all the
disturbed and threatened areas on permanent basis
are required to know their current biodiversity
situation and future continuity status. Plantation of
indigenous plants in the city is necessary.
Government and we must try to support the civic
agencies to save the natural biodiversity of the area.
There is also a need to control on the sources of
disturbances and pollution causing damage to
natural vegetation. Establishment of plant-protected
area at the center of the city is suggested due to
large-scale reduction in number of species.
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environmental problems of karachi.... all in one

Pakistan: Environmental Issues


Pakistan: Environmental Issues

Introduction
Poor natural resource management over many years and continuing high population growth have had a negative impact on Pakistan's environment. Agricultural runoff--caused by ongoing deforestation--and industrial runoff have polluted water supplies, and factory and vehicle emissions have degraded air quality in the urban centers. Similar to other developing countries, Pakistan has focused on achieving self-sufficiency in food production, meeting energy demands, and containing its high rate of population growth rather than on curtailing pollution or other environmental hazards. As a result, "green" concerns have not been the government's top priority.

Yet, as Pakistan's cities suffer from the effects of air pollution and unplanned development has caused degradation, environmental issues have become more salient. Safeguarding public health, as well as preserving Pakistan's natural wonders, has made environmental protection increasingly important. In an attempt to redress the previous inattention to the nation's mounting environmental problems, in 1992 the government issued its National Conservation Strategy Report (NCSR) outlining Pakistan's state of environmental health, its sustainable goals, and viable program options for the future with the National Conservation Goals

Building on the Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance of 1983, the NCSR stipulated three goals for the country's environmental protection efforts: conservation of natural resources; promotion of sustainable development; and improvement of efficiency in the use and management of resources. Fourteen program areas were targeted for priority implementation, including energy efficiency improvements, renewable resource development/deployment, pollution prevention/reduction, urban waste management, institutional support of common resources, and integration of population and environmental programs.

In addition, in 1993 Pakistan applied National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS) (Revised in 1999) to municipal and liquid industrial effluents and industrial gaseous emissions, motor vehicle exhaust, and noise. However, attempts to legislate environmental protection have fallen short, and regulations have not been enforced strongly. Enforcement does not imply effectiveness, though--even if regulations were strictly enforced, many industries would be unable to comply: when new revised environmental regulations were implemented in 1999, only 3% of industries were able to pass the test for compliance.


Air Pollution
The level of air pollution in Pakistan's two largest cities, Karachi and Lahore, is estimated to be 20 times higher than World Health Organization standards, and continuing to rise. Islamabad, the capital, is perpetually smothered by a thick cloud of smog that hides views of the Margalla Hills that tower over the city's tree-lined streets.

As industry has expanded, factories have emitted more and more toxic effluents into the air. Also, as in other developing countries, the number of vehicles in Pakistan has swelled in recent years--from 680,000 in 1980 to 3.8 million in 1998. Although the number of motor vehicles (1 per 143 people) in Pakistan is still well below that of the U.S. (1 per 1.3 people), the 1992 National Conservation Strategy Report claims that the average Pakistani vehicle emits 25 times as much carbon dioxide as the average U.S. vehicle, as well as 20 times as many hydrocarbons and more than 3.5 times as many nitrous oxides in grams per kilometer.

With few controls on vehicular emissions and little enforcement, reports show that motor vehicle exhaust accounts for 90% of the pollutants in Pakistan's air. The government has begun to take notice of the degrading air quality in the capital, which adversely affects the health of some 16 million people. A recent advertisement placed by the government in a newspaper warned, "Take care of your tune-ups before the poison in the air takes care of you."

Many Pakistani environmentalists say that poor fuel quality is also to blame for the country's serious air pollution problems. Fuel consumption rose by 188% in Pakistan from 1980 to 1998. An estimated 550 metric tons per year of lead emissions are generated by vehicles in Pakistan burning poor-quality fuel, with the resulting air pollution adding about $500 million per year in related health care costs.

Various grades of gasoline sold contain 0.35 gm/liter of lead--in comparison, leaded gas in other countries usually contains no more than 0.15 gm/liter. Dr. Asif Qayyum Qureshi, a research fellow at SDPI, claimed that the problem of air pollution could largely be solved if the government were to tighten its lax fuel quality standards.

However, the government's 1995 Clean Fuel Initiative was largely ineffective, and now authorities are looking at the possibility of using alternative fuels for vehicles. According to the latest statistics, more than 275 CNG stations are in operation and over 275,000 cars have been converted to CNG, making Pakistan third largest CNG consumer in the world after Argentina and Italy. Use of CNG in vehicles is being encouraged to reduce pressure on petroleum imports, to reduce carbon emissions and improve the environment.

Energy Consumption
Pakistan's energy consumption has nearly tripled in the last 20 years. From 0.6 quadrillion Btu in 1980, Pakistan's total energy consumption in 1998 stood at 1.7 quads. Still, Pakistan accounts for only 0.5% of total world energy consumption.

In terms of per capita energy consumption, Pakistan's level of 12.3 million Btu in 1998 is higher than Bangladesh's (3.3 million Btu) but virtually on par with India's (12.9 million). In comparison, China's per capita energy consumption in 1998 was 27.0 million Btu, Iran's was 72.4 million Btu, and Russia's was 177.3 million Btu, while U.S. per capita consumption was 350.7 million Btu.

Pakistan's energy consumption by sector shows that nearly half (49%) is attributed to residential. The industrial sector accounted for most of the rest with 33.5%, while transportation made up 13.2% and the commercial sector was responsible for 4.3%. Energy consumption by fuel type showed that oil made up 43.5%, natural gas 38.3%, and coal just 5.1%.

Carbon and Energy-Related Emissions
Pakistan's carbon emissions in 1998 totaled 26.8 million metric tons, nearly triple the 1980 level of 9.3 million metric tons. Yet, Pakistan accounts for only 0.4% of the world's carbon emissions, and its emissions are relatively low compared to its neighbors in the region: Iran's emissions have climbed from 33.1 million metric tons of carbon in 1980 to 79.4 million metric tons in 1998, while India's carbon emissions have jumped from 82.2 million metric tons in 1980 to 252.6 million metric tons in 1998.

Because Pakistan, along with other developing countries, has argued that it needs to be free of emission ceilings in order to develop its economy, the country has not taken on any emission reduction commitments under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, nor is Pakistan a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol.

Pakistan's per capita carbon emissions in 1998 were 0.2 metric tons. In comparison, Bangladesh emitted 0.1 metric tons of carbon per person, while India's level was 0.3 metric tons per capita. China's per capita carbon emissions level in 1998 was 0.6, Iran's level was 1.3, and the U.S. value was 5.5 metric tons per person.

Sectorally, Pakistan's carbon emissions mainly came from the industrial sector (45.1%), while transportation accounted for 27.1%, the residential sector for 22.3%, and the commercial sector 5.6%. Of these emissions, oil was responsible for 56%, with natural gas (35.7%) and coal (8.3%) making up for the rest.

Energy and Carbon Intensity
Pakistan's energy intensity--energy generated per dollar spent--is high due to the inefficiencies of the state-run power sector in generating electricity and transmitting it across the national grid. Poor quality infrastructure, as well as power theft, means that Pakistan does not generate the amount of electricity it needs to, necessitating rotating blackouts. In 1993, the World Bank estimated that 28% of the electricity generated in Pakistan was diverted illegally in transmission and distribution. Although the Pakistani government put this figure at 12%, theft has nonetheless exacerbated the country's high energy intensity.

In 1998 Pakistan's energy intensity stood at 30,700 Btu/$1990--more than double the United States' energy intensity of 13,400 Btu/$1990 in 1998. In comparison to its neighbors, Pakistan's level of energy intensity was slightly higher. Bangladesh's 1998 energy intensity was significantly lower at 13,200 Btu/$1990, while Iran (26,900 Btu/$1990) and India (27,203 Btu/$1990) were just below Pakistan and China (39,100 Btu/$1990) was higher than Pakistan.

Pakistan's lack of coal reserves has kept the country's carbon intensity down, but the level is still high. Carbon emissions from vehicles are the main reason behind Pakistan's 1998 carbon intensity of 0.47 metric tons of carbon/thousand $1990. The comparable U.S. level of carbon intensity was 0.21. Although Iran (0.47) matched Pakistan's 1998 carbon intensity level, both India (0.57) and China (0.85) were significantly higher. Only Bangladesh (0.21) was lower than Pakistan in terms of carbon intensity in the south Asian region.

Renewable Energy
Renewable energy consumed in Pakistan in 1997 totaled 1,132 trillion Btu, a 1% increase from 1996. Hydroelectric power is an important domestic energy source, generating 40% of all electricity in the country, and a number of new sites are being developed. Although the mountainous north gives Pakistan much hydroelectric potential, difficulty of access and the high cost of transmission to the populous south make development of this potential a distant prospect. Nevertheless, the Pakistani government has started working on feasibility studies for the construction of more dams, with feasibility reports of at least five small dams expected to be completed by the end of 2000.

Indeed, some development of renewable energy sources has been undertaken precisely because of the population's difficulty of access. In order to provide electricity to rural areas that would otherwise not have electricity in the foreseeable future (because they are either too remote and/or too expensive to connect to the national grid), Pakistan is turning to solar power. Pakistan recently signed a $50-million memorandum of understanding with WorldWater, an American company, to assemble and manufacture plants to build its solar modules and electronic controls to power water pumps and electric accessories.

The government hopes that, by harnessing solar power for energy in rural areas, it will reduce villages' reliance on firewood. Pakistan is still shifting to modern energy sources, with firewood, dung, and bagasse (the woody residue left over from crushed sugarcane) making up one-third of all energy consumed in Pakistan as recently as 1988. Pakistan's government is hoping that solar-generated electricity will improve rural life, thereby reducing the urban migration that is taxing the ability of cities to cope with their own environmental problems.

In 1994 Pakistan had one nuclear power plant, near Karachi. The plant, which was built in 1965 with Canadian assistance, has demonstrated a poor operating record, which--in addition to concerns in the international community about Pakistan's possible use of nuclear material for weapons--has contributed to the lack of further development of the country's nuclear power sector. However, the Chashma Nuclear Power Plant, which has been built with Chinese assistance but has been repeatedly delayed in coming online, is scheduled for completion in 2000.

Pakistan in the 21st Century
Following early successes in Pakistan's implementing its National Conservation Strategy, progress has stalled due to institutional failure on the part of the government policies and practices. In addition to policy ineffectiveness and corruption, Pakistan has not funded environmental protection efforts adequately. A January 2000 report released by the Ministry of Environment showed that Pakistan currently spends about $17 million per year on pollution-related cleanup; however, $84 million is needed to correct the country's environmental problems, and $1.8 billion per year in added health care costs stem from pollution-related causes.

A lack of funding is evident in Pakistan's environmental protection efforts. The former government cited lack of funds as the reason for delay in establishing the Pakistan Environment Protection Council, an environmental protection watchdog group that the government had agreed to set up several years ago (but only recently established). However, the SDPI has estimated that the government allocates just 0.04% of the total public sector development program budget on the environment, and 70% of the funds for environment are loans from foreign lenders. The SDPI has estimated the staggering cost of environmental neglect in Pakistan as between 3%-5% of GDP, projected to reach 4%-8% by 2010.

A World Bank pilot project in the province of Balochistan, if successful, could prove a national model for protecting Pakistan's environment and managing its natural resources. In addition to strengthening Balochistan's institutions involved with environmental protection and natural resource use so they are better able to undertake their responsibilities, the project seeks to empower local communities and involve them in the design and implementation of natural resources' development and management. The project also will work to improve provincial natural resources use policies so that natural resources are used in an efficient and sustainable manner, publicize environmental issues, and implement high priority operations and pilot programs to rehabilitate and develop damaged natural resources.

The World Bank's pilot programs are designed according to the objectives and strategies of Pakistan's National Conservation Strategy. However, Pakistan's previous environmental record is poor, and the country has not been able to back up its commitment to environmental protection with action until now. It is clear that Pakistan will need to place greater emphasis on environmental protection in order to stem the country's environmental degradation and safeguard citizens' health.

ENVIRONMENT
Pakistan's attempt to raise the living standards of its citizens has meant that economic development has largely taken precedence over environmental issues. Unchecked use of hazardous chemicals, vehicle emissions, and industrial activity has contributed to a number of environmental and health hazards, chief among them being water pollution. Much of the country suffers from a lack of potable water due to industrial waste and agricultural runoff that contaminates drinking water supplies. Poverty and high population growth have aggravated, and to a certain extent, caused, these environmental problems.

Although Pakistan is renowned for its mountain ranges and areas of untouched wilderness, the country passed legislation to protect its environment only in the past 10 years. Environmental groups have questioned the country's commitment to environmental protection, pointing to the decision in August 1999 to allow oil and gas exploration in Kirthar National Park, the country's oldest national wildlife park, by a multi-national company.

In the cities, widespread use of low-quality fuel, combined with a dramatic expansion in the number of vehicles on Pakistani roads, has led to significant air pollution problems. Although Pakistan's energy consumption is still low by world standards, lead and carbon emissions are major air pollutants in urban centers such as Karachi, Lahore, and Islamabad.

Theft or diversion of electricity in transmission, as well as a lack of energy efficiency standards, have contributed to Pakistan's high energy and carbon intensities. To increase energy efficiency, the country is stepping up its use of renewable energy sources to bring electricity to rural areas. As urbanization continues and the population grows at a rapid rate, in the 21st century Pakistan will need to confront its environmental problems in order to safeguard the health of it citizens.

PRESENT PROJECTS.
EPA Sindh presently is working on a project “ Vehicular Emissions Control Programme” (VECoP). The aim is initiation of a sustainable campaign for monitoring vehicles that could be classifies as polluting, both in terms of emissions and noise levels. Field monitoring teams will be formed at three cities (Karachi, Hyderabad and Sukkur) for monitoring the traffic at various pre-selected locations for identifying and penalizing the vehicles emitting smoke from their exhaust and producing noise that seems to be in excess to the premisible limits. Beside field monitoring teams, the Green Squads for Vehicluar Emission Testing Station (VETS) will also be established. Each Green Squad will include a nominee from SEPA (inspector), a field analyst, inspector, and necessary persons from traffic or other law enforcing agencies. 

COUNTRY OVERVIEW
President: General Pervaiz Musharraf (President since July 2001; Chief Executive from October 1999.)
Independence: August 14, 1947 (from UK)
Population (7/01E): 144.6 million
Location/Size: Southern Asia/310,500 square miles (about twice the size of California)
Major Cities: Islamabad (capital), Karachi, Lahore, Faisalabad
Languages: Urdu (national/official), English (official), Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashtu, Baloch
Ethnic Groups: Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashtun (Pathan), Baloch, Muhajir (immigrants from India and their descendants)
Religions: Muslim, 97% (Sunni 77%, Shia 20%); Christian, Hindu, and other, 3%
Defense (8/98): Army (520,000); Air Force (45,000); Navy (22,000); Paramilitary Forces (247,000)

ECONOMIC OVERVIEW
Currency: Pakistani Rupee
Average Exchange Rate (2/27/02): U.S.$1 = 62.9 rupees
Gross Domestic Product (GDP, market exchange rates, 2001E): $56.8 billion
Real GDP Growth Rate (2001E): 3.5% (2002F): 5.4%
Inflation Rate (2001E): 4.1% (2002F): 5.2%
Current Account Balance (2001E): -$1.9 billion
Merchandise Trade Balance (2001E): -$1.6 billion
Total External Debt (2001E): $34.1 billion
Major Trading Partners: United States, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, and Saudi Arabia
Major Export Products: Raw cotton and textiles; rice; leather manufactures
Major Import Products: Petroleum; machinery and transport equipment; food

ENERGY OVERVIEW
Proven Oil Reserves (1/1/02E): 298 million barrels
Oil Production (2001E): 57,000 barrels per day (bbl/d), of which 53,000 bbl/d was crude oil
Oil Consumption (2001E): 359,000 bbl/d
Net Oil Imports (1999E): 302,000 bbl/d
Crude Oil Refining Capacity (1/1/02E): 238,850 bbl/d
Natural Gas Reserves (1/1/02E): 25.1 trillion cubic feet (Tcf)
Natural Gas Production (1999E): 0.8 Tcf
Natural Gas Consumption (1999E): 0.8 Tcf
Coal Production (1999E): 3.8 million short tons (Mmst)
Coal Consumption (1999E): 4.9 Mmst
Net Coal Imports (1999E): 1.1 Mmst
Recoverable Coal Reserves (12/31/96E): 3.2 billion short tons
Electric Generation Capacity (1/1/99E): 17.0 gigawatts (71% thermal, 28% hydro, 1% nuclear)
Electricity Generation (1999E): 62 billion kilowatthours

ENVIRONMENTAL OVERVIEW
Total Energy Consumption (1999E): 1.8 quadrillion Btu* (0.47% of world total energy consumption)
Energy-Related Carbon Emissions (1999E): 27.9 million metric tons of carbon (0.45% of world total carbon emissions)
Per Capita Energy Consumption (1999E): 12.5 million Btu (vs. U.S. value of 355.8 million Btu)
Per Capita Carbon Emissions (1999E): 0.2 metric tons of carbon (vs. U.S. value of 5.5 metric tons of carbon)
Energy Intensity (1999E): 31,193 Btu/$1990 (vs U.S. value of 12,638 Btu/$1990)**
Carbon Intensity (1999E): 0.48 metric tons of carbon/thousand $1990 (vs U.S. value of 0.19 metric tons/thousand $1990)**
Sectoral Share of Energy Consumption (1998E): Residential (48.8%), Industrial (33.4%), Transportation (13.3%), Commercial (4.5%)
Sectoral Share of Carbon Emissions (1998E): Industrial (44.9%), Transportation (27.2%), Residential (22.2%), Commercial (5.7%)
Fuel Share of Energy Consumption (1999E): Oil (41.9%), Natural Gas (40.0%), Coal (5.0%)
Fuel Share of Carbon Emissions (1999E): Oil (54.6%), Natural Gas (37.4%), Coal (8.0%)
Renewable Energy Consumption (1998E): 1,145 trillion Btu* (1% increase from 1997)
Number of People per Motor Vehicle (1998E): 125 (vs. U.S. value of 1.3)
Status in Climate Change Negotiations: Non-Annex I country under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (ratified June 1st, 1994). Not a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol.
Major Environmental Issues: Air pollution from industrial units and vehicles, Water pollution from raw sewage, industrial wastes, and agricultural runoff; limited natural fresh water resources; a majority of the population does not have access to potable water; deforestation; soil erosion and desertification.
Major International Environmental Agreements: A party to Conventions on Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution and Wetlands .  Has signed, but not ratified, Marine Life Conservation.
* The total energy consumption statistic includes petroleum, dry natural gas, coal, net hydro, nuclear, geothermal, solar, wind, wood and waste electric power. The renewable energy consumption statistic is based on International Energy Agency (IEA) data and includes hydropower, solar, wind, tide, geothermal, solid biomass and animal products, biomass gas and liquids, industrial and municipal wastes. Sectoral shares of energy consumption and carbon emissions are also based on IEA data.
**GDP based on EIA International Energy Annual 1999

ENERGY INDUSTRY

Organization: Oil and Gas Development Corporation (OGDC), a state company, handles oil and gas exploration and development; Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) supplies electricity to most of the country; Karachi Electric Supply Corporation Limited (KESC) serves the greater Karachi metropolitan area; Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) operates one nuclear power plant
Major Foreign Energy Company Involvement: AES, Atlantic Richfield, British National Power, Coastal Power, Gaz de France, Total, General Electric, Lasmo Oil (U.K.), Marubeni (Japan), ExxonMobil, Monument Oil & Gas, Premier Oil, Royal Dutch Shell, Xenal (Saudi Arabia)
Major Ports: Gwadar, Karachi, Muhammed bin Qasim, Ormaro
Major Gas Fields: Bhit, Dhodak, Kadanwari, Mari, Prikoh, Qadipur, Sawan, Sui
Major Oil Fields: Dhurnal, Fimkasser, Liari, Mazari, Thora
Major Pipelines: Sui Northern Gas Pipeline; Sui Southern Gas Pipeline; Pak-Arab Refinery Company (PARCO) petroleum product pipeline
Major Refineries (Capacity): Pak-Arab Refinery near Multan (100,000 bbl/d); Attock Refinery in Rawalpindi (35,000 bbl/d), National Refinery in Korangi (62,050 bbl/d), Pakistan Refinery Ltd. in Karachi (46,300 bbl/d)
Irfanullah Tunio
Deputy Director (Monitoring)
Environmental Protection Agency
ST-2/1, Sector 23, Korangi Industrial Area,
Karachi, Pakistan
Phone: +92-21-5065637
Fax: +92-21-5065940
Email: tunio@cyber.net.pk epasindh@cyber.net.pk
Web: www.epa.gov.pk